Science The Ontario Curriculum, Grades 11 and 12 2000 Introduction The Ontario Curriculum, Grades 11 and 12: Science, 2000 will be implemented in Ontario secondary schools starting in September 2001 for students in Grade 11 and in September 2002 for students in Grade 12. This document replaces the parts of the following curriculum guidelines that relate to the senior grades: * Science, Part 1: Program Outline and Policy, Intermediate and Senior Divisions, 1987 * Science, Part 6: Science, Grades 11 and 12, Basic Level, Intermediate and Senior Divisions, 1988 * Science, Part 7: Environmental Science, Grades 10 to 12, General Level, Intermediate and Senior Divisions, 1988 * Science, Part 8: Environmental Science, Grades 10 and 12, Advanced Level, Intermediate and Senior Divisions, 1988 * Science, Part 9: Applied Biology and Applied Chemistry, Grade 11, General Level, Intermediate and Senior Divisions, 1988 * Science, Part 10: Applied Physics and Technological Science, Grade 12, General Level, Intermediate and Senior Divisions, 1989 * Science, Part 11: Geology, Grade 12, General and Advanced Levels, Intermediate and Senior Divisions, 1988 * Science, Part 12: Biology, Grade 11, Advanced Level, and the OAC, Intermediate and Senior Divisions, 1987 * Science, Part 13: Chemistry, Grade 11, Advanced Level, and the OAC, Intermediate and Senior Divisions, 1987 * Science, Part 14: Physics, Grade 12, Advanced Level, and the OAC, Intermediate and Senior Divisions, 1988 * Science, Part 15: Science in Society, OAC, Intermediate and Senior Divisions, 1988 This document is designed for use in conjunction with The Ontario Curriculum, Grades 9 to 12: Program Planning and Assessment, 2000, which contains information relevant to all disciplines represented in the curriculum. The Place of Science in the Curriculum During the twentieth century, science has come to play an increasingly important role in the lives of all Canadians. It underpins many of the technologies that we now take for granted, from life-saving pharmaceuticals to computers and other information technologies. There is every reason to expect that science and its impact on our lives will continue to grow as we enter the twenty-first century. Consequently, scientific literacy for all has become the goal of science education throughout the world, and has been given expression in Canada in the Common Framework of Science Learning Outcomes, K to 12: Pan-Canadian Protocol for Collaboration on School Curriculum (Council of Ministers of Education, Canada, 1997). Scientific literacy can be defined as possession of the scientific knowledge, skills, and habits of mind required to thrive in the science-based world of the twenty-first century. Achieving excellence in scientific literacy is not the same as becoming a science specialist. The notion of thriving in a science-based world applies as much to a small-business person, a lawyer, an elementary school teacher, or an office worker as it does to a doctor, an engineer, or a research scientist. While the specific knowledge and skills required for each of these occupations vary, the basic goal of thriving in a science-based world remains the same. Achievement of both excellence and equity underlies the goals of the new science program at the secondary level. Accordingly, science courses have been designed for a wide variety of students, taking into account their interests and possible postsecondary destinations. Some courses have been designed to serve as preparation for specialist studies in science-related fields; others have been designed for students intending to go on to postsecondary education but not to study science; still others have been designed with the needs of the workplace in mind. The overall intention is that all graduates of Ontario secondary schools will achieve excellence and a high degree of scientific literacy while maintaining a sense of wonder about the world around them. Accordingly, the curriculum reflects new developments on the international science scene and is intended to position science education in Ontario at the forefront of science education around the world. Science has significant, though varied, connections with many other disciplines. Science is related in many ways to the economies of most nations, including Canada, and plays a major role in public and private decisions in many areas of society. It is critical, for example, to decisions and developments relating to sustainable development. Thus, science cannot be taught in isolation, but must be linked to other disciplines. Clearly, many topics studied in mathematics and technological education overlap with topics covered in science. Similar links exist with geography and other areas of social studies. Communication is, of course, extremely important in science, as it is in all disciplines – both in terms of reading and writing, and in the use of information technology for collecting, organizing, and presenting information. The newer aspects of the science curriculum – especially those that focus on science, technology, society, and the environment (STSE) – call for students to deal with the impacts of science on society and the environment, which includes both the natural environment and the workplace environment. This requirement brings in issues that relate to human values. Science can therefore not be viewed as merely a matter of “facts”; rather, it is a subject in which students learn to weigh the complex combinations of fact and value that developments in science and technology have given rise to in modern society. Subject matter from any course in science can be combined with subject matter from one or more courses in other disciplines to create an interdisciplinary course. The policies and procedures regarding the development of interdisciplinary courses are outlined in the interdisciplinary studies curriculum policy document. The secondary curriculum in science in Grades 9 to 12 builds on three basic goals that run through every grade and strand of the elementary curriculum and that reflect the essential triad of knowledge, skills, and the ability to relate science to technology, society, and the environment (STSE). In the secondary program, these goals vary somewhat according to the type of course, but they are always present in some form and serve to unify the program (see page 6). Science is approached in all courses not only as an intellectual pursuit but also as an activity-based enterprise operating within a social context. The content of the secondary science program also builds on the five strands present in the elementary curriculum, although less emphasis is placed on technological education, which is a distinct discipline at the secondary level. The study of biology, chemistry, earth and space science, and physics in strands in the Grade 9 and 10 courses is expanded to the study of these subject areas in full courses in Grades 11 and 12. In addition, the transition between Grade 8 and Grade 9 courses and between the courses from Grades 9 to 12 is a smooth one because of the close alignment of both the elementary and the secondary program with the pan-Canadian Common Framework of Science Learning Outcomes. The Program in Science Overview The overall aim of the secondary science program is to ensure scientific literacy for every secondary school graduate. This aim can be achieved by meeting three overall goals for every student. The secondary science program, from Grade 9 through Grade 12, is designed to promote these goals, which are as follows: * to understand the basic concepts of science * to develop the skills, strategies, and habits of mind required for scientific inquiry * to relate science to technology, society, and the environment These three goals are defined more specifically within the courses that make up the science program. Every strand, or broad curriculum area, of each course has three overall expectations and three groups of specific expectations that correspond to the three goals. These goals are also the basis on which student achievement in science is assessed. Four types of courses are offered in the Grade 11 and 12 science program: university preparation, university/college preparation, college preparation, and workplace preparation. (See The Ontario Curriculum, Grades 9 to 12: Program Planning and Assessment, 2000 for a description of the different types of secondary school courses.) A list of all Grade 11 and 12 science courses is given below. A chart showing prerequisites follows. [Page 6 chart omitted] A Note About Credits. Courses in Grades 11 and 12 are designed to be offered as full-credit courses. However, half-credit courses may be developed for specialized programs, such as school-work transition and apprenticeship programs, as long as the original course is not designated as a requirement for entry into a university program. Individual universities will identify the courses that are prerequisites for admission to specific programs. Such courses must be offered as full-credit courses, to ensure that students meet admission requirements. In Grades 9 to 12, half-credit courses, which require a minimum of fifty-five hours of scheduled instructional time, must adhere to the following conditions: * The two half-credit courses created from a full course must together contain all of the expectations of the full course, drawn from all of the strands of that course and divided in a manner that best enables students to achieve the required knowledge and skills in the allotted time. * A course that is a prerequisite for another course in the secondary curriculum may be offered as two half-credit courses, but students must successfully complete both parts of the course to fulfil the prerequisite. (Students are not required to complete both parts unless the course is a prerequisite for another course that they wish to take.) * The title of each half-credit course must include the designation Part 1 or Part 2. A half-credit (0.5) will be recorded in the credit-value column of both the report card and the Ontario Student Transcript. Boards will ensure that all half-credit courses comply with the conditions described above, and will report all half-credit courses to the ministry annually in the School September Report. Prerequisite Chart for Science, Grades 9–12 This chart maps out all the courses in the discipline and shows the links between courses and the possible prerequisites for them. It does not attempt to depict all possible movements from course to course. [Page 8 chart omitted] Teaching Approaches It is important that students have opportunities to learn in a variety of ways: individually and cooperatively; independently and with teacher direction; through hands-on activities; and through the study of examples followed by practice. There is no single correct way to teach or to learn. The nature of the science curriculum calls for a variety of strategies for learning. The strategies should vary according to the curriculum expectations and the needs of the students. The expectations in science courses call for an active, experimental approach to learning, and require all students to participate regularly in laboratory activities. Laboratory activities can reinforce the learning of scientific concepts and promote the development of the skills of scientific investigation and communication. Where opportunity allows, students might be required, as part of their laboratory activities, to design and conduct research on a real scientific problem for which the results are unknown. The goal of relating science to technology, society, and the environment (STSE) is an important new feature of this curriculum. In order to attain this goal, connections between science and technology and between science and the world beyond the school must be integrated into students’ learning of scientific concepts and skills. Where possible, concepts should be introduced in the context of real-world problems and issues. Students should also be provided with a variety of opportunities to broaden their understanding of scientific investigation. They should be encouraged to participate in research field trips and debates, and should have opportunities to interview people who are knowledgeable in specific areas of science, such as guest speakers at the school. Curriculum Expectations The expectations identified for each course describe the knowledge and skills that students are expected to develop and demonstrate in their class work, on tests, and in various other activities on which their achievement is assessed and evaluated. Two sets of expectations are listed for each strand, or broad curriculum area, of each course. The overall expectations describe in general terms the knowledge and skills that students are expected to demonstrate by the end of each course. The specific expectations describe the expected knowledge and skills in greater detail. The specific expectations are organized under subheadings. This organization is not meant to imply that the expectations in any one group are achieved independently of the expectations in the other groups. The subheadings are used merely to help teachers focus on particular aspects of knowledge and skills as they plan learning activities for their students. Many of the expectations are accompanied by examples, given in parentheses. These examples are meant to illustrate the kind of skill, the specific area of learning, the depth of learning, and/or the level of complexity that the expectation entails. They are intended as a guide for teachers rather than as an exhaustive or mandatory list. In all courses, a list of expectations is given that precedes the strands. These expectations describe skills that are considered to be essential for scientific investigation (e.g., skills in research, in the use of materials, and in the use of units of measurement), and skills required for investigating possible careers in the subject area. These skills apply to all areas of course content and must be developed in all strands of the course. Teachers should ensure that students develop these skills in appropriate ways while achieving the curriculum expectations outlined in the strands. Assessment of students’ mastery of these skills must be included in the evaluation of students’ achievement of the expectations for the course. Strands The expectations for the Grade 11 and 12 science courses are organized in five distinct but related strands. The strands are different for each course. The content of the strands includes, where possible, topics set out in the pan-Canadian Common Framework of Science Learning Outcomes. The strands for all the Grade 11 and 12 science courses are outlined in the following chart. [Page 10 chart omitted] Note: In the above chart, the following abbreviations are used: U for university preparation, U/C for university/college preparation, C for college preparation, and W for workplace preparation. Biology Biology, Grade 11, University Preparation (SBI3U) This course furthers students’ understanding of the processes involved in biological systems. Students will study cellular functions, genetic continuity, internal systems and regulation, the diversity of living things, and the anatomy, growth, and functions of plants. The course focuses on the theoretical aspects of the topics under study, and helps students refine skills related to scientific investigation. Prerequisite: Science, Grade 10, Academic Throughout this course, students will: * demonstrate an understanding of safety practices consistent with Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System (WHMIS) legislation by selecting and applying appropriate techniques for handling, storing, and disposing of laboratory materials (e.g., use proper techniques in preparing, using, and disposing of bacterial cultures); * select appropriate instruments and use them effectively and accurately in collecting observations and data (e.g., microscope, laboratory glassware, stethoscope, dissection instruments); * demonstrate the skills required to plan and carry out investigations, using laboratory equipment safely, effectively, and accurately (e.g., conduct an experiment to determine the effects of quantity and quality of light on photosynthesis); * select and use appropriate numeric, symbolic, graphical, and linguistic modes of representation to communicate scientific ideas, plans, and experimental results (e.g., use characteristics of organisms and the principles and nomenclature of taxonomy to classify organisms; use proper terminology related to organs and tissues); * locate, select, analyse, and integrate information on topics under study, working independently and as part of a team, and using appropriate library and electronic research tools, including Internet sites; * compile, organize, and interpret data, using appropriate formats and treatments, including tables, flow charts, graphs, and diagrams; * communicate the procedures and results of investigations and research for specific purposes using data tables and laboratory reports (e.g., report on an experimental investigation of the movement of materials across a cell membrane); * express the result of any calculation involving experimental data to the appropriate number of decimal places or significant figures; * select and use appropriate SI units (units of measurement of the Système international d’unités, or International System of Units); * identify and describe science- and technology-based careers related to the subject area under study (e.g., biochemist, forester, geneticist, physiotherapist, oncologist, horticulturist). Cellular Functions Overall Expectations By the end of this course, students will: * demonstrate an understanding of cell structure and function and the processes of metabolism and membrane transport; * investigate the fundamental molecular principles and mechanisms that govern energy-transforming activities in all living matter, whether it be animal, plant, or microbial; * demonstrate an understanding of the relationship between cell functions and their technological and environmental applications. Specific Expectations Understanding Basic Concepts By the end of this course, students will: * describe how organelles and other cell components carry out various cell processes (e.g., digestion, transportation, gas exchange, excretion) and explain how these processes are related to the function of organs; * identify and describe the structure and function of important biochemical compounds, including carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids; * describe the fluid mosaic structure of cell membranes, and explain the dynamics of passive transport (facilitated diffusion) and the processes of endocytosis and exocytosis of large particles; * explain the flow of energy between photosynthesis and respiration; * compare anaerobic respiration (including fermentation) and aerobic respiration and state the advantages and disadvantages for an organism or tissue of using either process; * illustrate and explain important cellular processes (e.g., protein synthesis, respiration, lysosomal digestion), including their function in the cell, the ways in which they are interrelated, and the fact that they occur in all living cells. Developing Skills of Inquiry and Communication By the end of this course, students will: * design and carry out an investigation on cellular function, controlling the major variables (e.g., examine the movement of substances across a membrane; measure a metabolic process such as fermentation); * view and manipulate computer-generated, three-dimensional molecular models of important biochemical compounds, including carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids; * identify new questions and problems stemming from the study of metabolism in plant and animal cells (e.g., What is the relationship between chloroplasts and mitochondria in plant cells?); * carry out, in a safe and accurate manner, biological tests for macromolecules found in living organisms (e.g., use iodine and Benedict’s solution to test for carbohydrates; use Sudan IV to test for the presence of lipids). Relating Science to Technology, Society, and the Environment By the end of this course, students will: * present informed opinions on advances in cellular biology and possible applications through related technology (e.g., new treatments for cancer; the possibility of producing ethanol as a fuel; the uses of radioactive labelling, fluorescence of genetic material, or simulations of three-dimensional molecular structure); * explain how scientific knowledge of cellular processes is used in technological applications (e.g., how knowledge of a particular microbe is used in biotechnological applications in the pulp and paper industry or in the clean-up of oil spills); * analyse ways in which societal needs have led to technological advances related to cellular processes (e.g., document, using newspaper articles, the impact of public awareness on research to detect and treat diseases such as AIDS and hepatitis C). Genetic Continuity Overall Expectations By the end of this course, students will: * demonstrate an understanding of the necessity of meiosis and describe the importance of genes in transmitting hereditary characteristics according to Mendel’s model of inheritance; * perform laboratory studies of meiosis and analyse the results of genetic research related to the laws of heredity; * outline the scientific findings and some of the technological advances that led to the modern concept of the gene and to genetic technology, and demonstrate an awareness of some of the social and political issues raised by genetic research and reproductive technology. Specific Expectations Understanding Basic Concepts By the end of this course, students will: * demonstrate an understanding of the process and importance of mitosis (e.g., cell division and the phases of mitosis); * explain how the concepts of DNA, genes, chromosomes, and meiosis account for the transmission of hereditary characteristics from generation to generation (e.g., explain how the sex of an individual can be determined genetically; demonstrate an understanding that the expression of a genetic disorder linked to the sex chromosomes is more common in males than in females); * describe and explain the process of discovery (e.g., the sequence of studies and the knowledge gained) that led Mendel to formulate his laws of heredity; * explain the process of meiosis in terms of the replication and movement of chromosomes; * describe genetic disorders (e.g., Down syndrome, cystic fibrosis, muscular dystrophy, fragile X syndrome) in terms of the chromosomes affected, physical effects, and treatment; * explain, using Mendelian genetics, the concepts of dominance, co-dominance, incomplete dominance, recessiveness, and sex-linkage; * predict the outcome of various genetic crosses. Developing Skills of Inquiry and Communication By the end of this course, students will: * explain the process of meiosis, with reference to a computer simulation or to their own investigations with a microscope (e.g., using slides of grasshopper testis, explain what happens in the first and second stages of prophase and metaphase and anaphase 2 in meiosis); * solve basic genetic problems involving monohybrid crosses, incomplete dominance, co-dominance, dihybrid crosses, and sex-linked genes using the Punnett method; * organize data (e.g., in a table) that illustrate the number of chromosomes in haploid cells and diploid cells, and the number of pairs of chromosomes in diploid cells, that occur in various organisms before, during, and as a result of meiosis; * compile qualitative and quantitative data from a laboratory investigation on monohybrid and dihybrid crosses, and present the results, either by hand or computer (e.g., record observations using a “Virtual Fly” laboratory software package); * research genetic technologies using sources from print and electronic media, and synthesize the information gained (e.g., describe the Human Genome Project, transgenics, or the process of genetic screening; list the advantages and disadvantages of cloning or the genetic manipulation of plants). Relating Science to Technology, Society, and the Environment By the end of this course, students will: * summarize the main scientific discoveries of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries that led to the modern concept of the gene (e.g., the discoveries of Hugo de Vries, W.S. Sutton, Thomas Morgan, J. Muller, Barbara McClintock, Rosalind Franklin, James Watson, and Francis Crick); * describe and analyse examples of genetic technologies that were developed on the basis of scientific understanding (e.g., the improvement of an experimental procedure to extract DNA from bacterial or plant cells); * identify and describe examples of Canadian contributions to knowledge about genetic processes (e.g., research into cystic fibrosis) and to technologies and techniques related to genetic processes (e.g., the invention of nuclear magnetic resonance [NMR]). Internal Systems and Regulation Overall Expectations By the end of this course, students will: * describe and explain the major processes, mechanisms, and systems, including the respiratory, circulatory, and digestive systems, by which plants and animals maintain their internal environment; * illustrate and explain, through laboratory investigations, the contribution of various types of systems and processes to internal regulation in plant and animal systems; * evaluate the impact of personal lifestyle decisions on the health of humans, and analyse how societal concern for maintaining human health has advanced the development of technologies related to the regulation of internal systems. Specific Expectations Understanding Basic Concepts By the end of this course, students will: * describe the process of ventilation and gas exchange from the environment to the cell (e.g., describe the pathway of oxygen from the atmosphere to the cell, and the roles of ventilation, haemoglobin, and diffusion in this process); * explain the role of transport or circulatory systems in the transport of substances in an organism (e.g., explain how nutrients, respiratory gases, end products of metabolism, and hormones or regulatory chemicals are transported from one area in an organism to another); * describe the importance of nutrients and digestion in providing substances needed for energy and growth (e.g., relate the need for carbohydrates in the diet to their role in cellular respiration; describe the many uses of proteins; describe how plants use nutrients); * demonstrate an understanding of how fitness level is related to the efficiency of metabolism and of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems; * describe how the use of prescription and non-prescription drugs can disrupt or help maintain homeostasis (e.g., describe the effects of acetylsalicylic acid, or ASA, on human systems). Developing Skills of Inquiry and Communication By the end of this course, students will: * compare the anatomy of different organisms – vertebrate and/or invertebrate (e.g., carry out a dissection, or use a computer-simulated dissection, of a mammal or a fish to examine the heart, the pulmonary circulation system, the aorta, and other main arteries and veins, and compare the functions of the arteries and veins to those of xylem and phloem in plants); * design and carry out, in a safe and accurate manner, an experiment on feedback mechanisms, identifying specific variables (e.g., investigate feedback controls by comparing resting rates of heartbeat and breathing with those after exercise, and then again after rest); * select and integrate information about internal systems from various print and electronic sources, or from several parts of the same source (e.g., present information about special diets, such as those for vegans and diabetics; develop a pamphlet on how to treat the accidental ingestion of poisons). Relating Science to Technology, Society, and the Environment By the end of this course, students will: * identify examples of technologies that have enhanced scientific understanding of internal systems (e.g., instruments used to monitor biological systems, such as the computer axial tomography [CAT] scanner or the stethoscope, and products used to alter or augment them, such as pharmaceuticals, prosthetics, and pacemakers; the use of radio-isotopes to identify and combat diseases); * provide examples of Canadian contributions to the development of technology for examining internal systems (e.g., devices used in nuclear medicine); * analyse and explain how societal needs have led to scientific and technological developments related to internal systems (e.g., explain how the need to maintain wellness in humans led to the development of dietary products and fitness equipment; analyse how social awareness of the importance of organ donation has led to improved techniques for transplanting organs, such as the liver); * present informed opinions about how scientific knowledge of internal systems influences personal choices concerning nutrition and lifestyle (e.g., explain the advantages and disadvantages of taking steroids or amino acid supplements; explain the scientific reasons for committing personal time to exercise). Diversity of Living Things Overall Expectations By the end of this course, students will: * demonstrate an understanding of the diversity of living organisms through applying the concepts of phylogeny and taxonomy to the kingdoms of life (including Eubacteria and Archeabacteria) and viruses; * use techniques of sampling and classification to illustrate the fundamental principles of taxonomy; * relate the role of common characteristics and diversity within the kingdoms of life (including Eubacteria and Archeabacteria) to the importance of maintaining biodiversity within natural ecosystems, and explain the use of micro-organisms in biotechnology. Specific Expectations Understanding Basic Concepts By the end of this course, students will: * define the fundamental principles of taxonomy and phylogeny (e.g., provide definitions of concepts such as genus, species, and taxon, and explain how species are categorized and named according to structure and/or evolutionary history); * compare and contrast the structure and function of different types of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells (e.g., compare prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells in terms of genetic material, metabolism, and organelles/cell parts); * describe selected anatomical and physiological characteristics of representative organisms from each life kingdom and a representative virus (e.g., describe gas exchange mechanisms and structures, or reproductive processes and components); * compare and contrast the life cycles of representative organisms from each life kingdom and a representative virus (e.g., draw and label the life cycles of representative organisms, and make a chart comparing the features of the life cycles); * explain the importance of sexual reproduction (including the process of meiosis) to variability within a population. Developing Skills of Inquiry and Communication By the end of this course, students will: * demonstrate, through applying classification techniques and terminology, the usefulness of the system of scientific nomenclature in the field of taxonomy; * classify representative organisms from each of the kingdoms (e.g., classify organisms according to their nutritional pattern, type of reproduction, habitat, and general structures); * use appropriate sampling procedures to collect various organisms in a marsh, pond, or other ecosystem, and classify them following the principles of taxonomy. Relating Science to Technology, Society, and the Environment By the end of this course, students will: * explain the relevance of current studies of viruses and bacteria to the field of biotechnology (e.g., give examples of how viruses and bacteria are used in biotechnology); * demonstrate an understanding of the connection between biodiversity and species survival (e.g., state the advantages to a population of having genetic variations between individuals – such as the resistance to infection by “new” micro-organisms, the resistance of insects to pesticides, or the resistance of bacteria to antibiotics; explain why some species and not others survive an environmental stress). Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Functions Overall Expectations By the end of this course, students will: * describe the major processes and mechanisms by which plants grow, develop, and supply various products, including energy and nutrition, needed by other organisms; * demonstrate an understanding, based in part on their own investigations, of the connections among the factors that affect the growth of plants, the uses of plants, and the ways in which plants adapt to their environment; * evaluate how the energy and nutritional needs of a population influence the development and use of plant science and technology. Specific Expectations Understanding Basic Concepts By the end of this course, students will: * illustrate the process of succession and the role of plants in the maintenance of diversity and the survival of organisms; * describe the structure and function of the components of each of the leaf, the stem, and the root of a representative vascular plant (e.g., describe the path of water from the soil through the plant); * explain how non-vascular plants (e.g., multicellular algae, bryophytes) function without a specialized vascular system; * differentiate between monocot and dicot plants by observing and comparing the structure of their seeds and identifying vascular differences between plants; * describe the effects of growth regulators (e.g., auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins); * describe and explain some of the food and industrial processes that depend on plants; * describe and explain some of the uses of plant extracts in food and therapeutic products. Developing Skills of Inquiry and Communication By the end of this course, students will: * design and carry out an experiment to determine the factors that affect the growth of a population of plants, identifying and controlling major variables (e.g., examine the effect on plant growth of the quantity of nutrients, or the quantity and quality of light, or temperature, or salinity); * describe the nutrients required for the development of plants (e.g., describe the uses of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium in the plant, and relate them to fertilizer content; consider different stages in the growth of plants, from germination through growth, flowering, and fruit production, and indicate the appropriate fertilizer to be used at each stage); * identify, using a microscope and models, the plant tissues in roots, stems, and leaves (e.g., use a microscope to identify tissues such as xylem and phloem throughout the plant); * compile information about the chemical products derived from plants and, either by hand or computer, display the information in a variety of formats, including diagrams, flow charts, tables, graphs, and scatter plots (e.g., make a chart of plants and their related products). Relating Science to Technology, Society, and the Environment By the end of this course, students will: * identify various factors that result in trade-offs in the development of food technologies (e.g., explain why vegetable growers might prefer varieties that “travel well” – that is, don’t spoil easily – over those with the most flavour or nutritional value); * describe and explain ways in which society supports and influences plant science and technology (e.g., analyse the influence on food production technologies of the constant demand for fresh fruit at affordable prices); * express opinions supported by their own research about the case for funding certain projects in plant science or technology rather than others (e.g., evaluate the relative merits, for funding purposes, of research projects on genetic manipulation of plants over projects related to the development of organic products); * describe how a technology related to plants functions (e.g., long-term use of pesticides, including herbicides), and evaluate it on the basis of identified criteria such as safety, cost, availability, and impact on everyday life and the environment. Biology, Grade 11, College Preparation (SBI3C) This course focuses on the processes involved in biological systems. Students will learn concepts and theories as they conduct investigations in the areas of cellular biology, microbiology, animal anatomy and physiology, plant structure and physiology, and environmental science. Emphasis will be placed on the practical application of concepts, and on the skills needed for further study in various branches of the life sciences and related fields. Prerequisite: Science, Grade 10, Academic or Applied Throughout this course, students will: * demonstrate an understanding of safety practices consistent with Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System (WHMIS) legislation by selecting and applying appropriate techniques for handling, storing, and disposing of laboratory materials (e.g., follow safety procedures in handling, storing, and disposing of acids, bases, bacterial cultures, and bio-hazardous waste); * select appropriate instruments and use them effectively and accurately in collecting observations and data (e.g., microscope, laboratory glassware, stethoscope, dissection instruments); * demonstrate the skills required to plan and carry out investigations, using laboratory equipment safely, effectively, and accurately (e.g., conduct an experiment to investigate gas production in the metabolic processes of plants); * select and use appropriate numeric, symbolic, graphical, and linguistic modes of representation to communicate scientific ideas, plans, and experimental results (e.g., identify chemical formulae for some important biochemical compounds; use correct terminology to describe the internal systems of organisms); * locate, select, analyse, and integrate information on topics under study, working independently and as part of a team, and using appropriate library and electronic research tools, including Internet sites; * compile, organize, and interpret data, using appropriate formats and treatments, including tables, flow charts, graphs, and diagrams (e.g., construct a flow chart to describe representative mechanisms in living organisms, or a chart on the uses of microbes in biotechnological applications); * communicate the procedures and results of investigations and research for specific purposes using data tables and laboratory reports (e.g., describe appropriate sampling techniques for classification of specimens in a local environment); * express the result of any calculation involving experimental data to the appropriate number of decimal places or significant figures; * select and use appropriate SI units; * identify and describe science- and technology-based careers related to the subject area under study (e.g., cell technologist, chef, nutritionist, medical laboratory technician). Cellular Biology Overall Expectations By the end of this course, students will: * demonstrate an understanding of the basic processes of cellular biology, including membrane transport, cellular respiration, photosynthesis, and enzyme activity; * investigate the factors that influence cellular activity using appropriate laboratory equipment and techniques; * demonstrate an understanding of the importance of cellular processes in their personal lives, as well as in the development and application of biotechnology. Specific Expectations Understanding Basic Concepts By the end of this course, students will: * state the principles of the cell theory; * describe how organelles and other cell components carry out various cell processes; * identify and describe the structure and function of important biochemical compounds, including carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids (e.g., use models to represent the molecules or monomers of the polymers); * describe the critical role of enzymes in biochemical reactions (e.g., describe the function of deaminase in the breakdown of amino acids; explain the role of enzymes as biological catalysts); * identify cell processes and functions that use facilitated diffusion, osmosis, and active transport (e.g., describe the importance of facilitated diffusion in the movement of glucose across the membrane in the liver; describe the need for energy in the sodium-potassium pump); * compare the chemical changes and energy transformations associated with the processes of respiration (aerobic and anaerobic) and photosynthesis; * identify the role of compounds present in cellular respiration and photosynthesis (e.g., water, glucose, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and adenosine triphosphate [ATP]). Developing Skills of Inquiry and Communication By the end of this course, students will: * analyse, based on their findings from a laboratory experiment, the effect of various factors (e.g., pH, temperature, and concentration of solute) on the rate of diffusion across a plasma membrane; * prepare a wet mount of a stained specimen and, using a light microscope, identify some of the organelles of a cell (e.g., view with a light microscope nuclei and chloroplasts – ribosomes and mitochondria are more difficult to see); * apply mathematical models to answer questions related to cell processes (e.g., calculate the magnification of a specimen; use the concept of exponential growth to explain the growth of cells); * perform common laboratory procedures needed for the study of cell processes, using appropriate techniques (e.g., prepare buffer solutions needed for laboratory investigations into enzyme and membrane activity); * investigate, through experimentation, the effect of environment on the action of enzymes (e.g., the effect of temperature or pH on the digestion of starch by saliva); * conduct biological tests to identify macromolecules found in living organisms (e.g., use iodine and Benedict’s solution to test for carbohydrates; use biuret solution to test for proteins). Relating Science to Technology, Society, and the Environment By the end of this course, students will: * collaboratively or individually, research ways in which knowledge of cell processes and related technologies is relevant to their personal lives and the life of their community (e.g., investigate the effects of good nutrition on health using knowledge of metabolic processes and how they are clinically measured); * identify medical technologies based on cellular biology that are used in the diagnosis and treatment of disorders, and describe their benefits; * apply scientific principles in describing and analysing the function of laboratory equipment and techniques used in cell biology. Microbiology Overall Expectations By the end of this course, students will: * demonstrate an understanding of the characteristics of various micro-organisms, of their role in the environment, and of their influences on other organisms, including humans; * analyse the development and physical characteristics of micro-organisms, using appropriate laboratory equipment and techniques; * explain the role of micro-organisms with respect to human health and in technological applications in medicine, industry, and the environment. Specific Expectations Understanding Basic Concepts By the end of this course, students will: * compare the structure and properties of the genetic material of viruses and bacteria with those of eukaryotic cells; * illustrate the differences between representative bacteria (including Eubacteria and Archeabacteria), protists, viruses, and fungi by comparing their shape, motility, ecological role, and connection to human diseases; * analyse and explain the different methods of reproduction in various types of viruses, monera, and fungi; * describe the anatomy and physiology of representative organisms from monera, protists, fungi, and viruses; * demonstrate an understanding of the vital role micro-organisms play in symbiotic relationships (e.g., gut enterobes, mycorrhizal fungi, and commensal phototrophs in coral polyp colonies); * describe the role of viruses and bacteria in genetic manipulation, using their knowledge of DNA. Developing Skills of Inquiry and Communication By the end of this course, students will: * identify specimens of monera, protists, and fungi by using prepared slides or wet mounts; * prepare a laboratory culture of micro-organisms on agar using aseptic techniques; * design and conduct an experiment to determine the effect of antibacterial agents on different bacterial cultures (e.g., determine the efficiency of various mouthwashes by observing the growth of bacteria on a nutrient agar); * analyse the conditions needed by micro-organisms for growth, through laboratory activities (e.g., determine the optimal temperature for a particular bacterium to grow); * work cooperatively to compile and organize data on micro-organisms from print and electronic sources, and communicate questions and results (e.g., research and describe how an industry uses microbes to make a product such as yogurt or hormones). Relating Science to Technology, Society, and the Environment By the end of this course, students will: * evaluate the impact of viral, bacterial, and fungal infections on the health of host organisms, and on humans in particular (e.g., examine the relationship between the emergence of new species of bacteria and viruses and the use of antibiotics, and determine the health implications for human populations); * describe some ways in which viruses, bacteria, and fungi are used in biotechnology (e.g., describe the use of viruses as vectors and as restriction enzymes); * explain and illustrate the roles of viruses and bacteria in genetic engineering; * evaluate the effects of large-scale use of fungicides and pesticides on the diversity of micro-organisms; * describe some beneficial functions of micro-organisms in an ecosystem (e.g., the role of bacteria as decomposers). Animal Anatomy and Physiology Overall Expectations By the end of this course, students will: * demonstrate an understanding of the structure, function, and interactions of the main internal systems of humans and other animals; * investigate, with the aid of laboratory procedures, the physiological mechanisms of animal systems that are responsible for the physical health of the individual; * demonstrate an understanding of the connections among health, preventive measures, and treatment, and of their social and economic implications. Specific Expectations Understanding Basic Concepts By the end of this course, students will: * describe the anatomy and physiology of the digestive, circulatory, excretory, respiratory, reproductive, and locomotion systems of humans and one other animal; * explain mechanisms of interaction between animal systems (e.g., describe the exchanges between capillaries and tissues; explain the emulsification of lipids by bile); * explain how the endocrine system and central nervous system help maintain homeostasis (e.g., describe how blood sugar levels are maintained by the liver and the pancreas); * describe the causes and effects of common disorders of each system (e.g., explain the effects of lactose intolerance; describe the causes of heart murmurs). Developing Skills of Inquiry and Communication By the end of this course, students will: * use instruments accurately to collect data (e.g., use a stethoscope to find heart rate under various conditions; use blood simulation activities to determine blood types using antigens; use a sphygmomanometer to measure blood pressure); * design and carry out an experiment related to animal physiology, identifying specific variables (e.g., demonstrate feedback controls by comparing resting heart rate with that after exercise, and then again after rest); * carry out a dissection, or use a computer-simulated dissection, of a vertebrate to identify organs and establish relationships among structure, function, and health (e.g., dissect a mammal to identify and examine the components of the digestive system). Relating Science to Technology, Society, and the Environment By the end of this course, students will: * evaluate the influence of the media on attitudes towards nutrition (e.g., explain changing perspectives on dietary practices, such as awareness of the potential benefits of oat bran, or the desirability of unsaturated fats over saturated fats); * describe how a technology related to the treatment of internal systems functions (e.g., kidney dialysis, the use of artificial hearts and artificial blood) and evaluate it on the basis of identified criteria such as safety, cost, availability, and impact on everyday life and the environment. Plant Structure and Physiology Overall Expectations By the end of this course, students will: * demonstrate an understanding of the diversity of plants, and of their internal transport systems, reproduction, and growth; * analyse the factors influencing the growth and maintenance of plants, using appropriate laboratory equipment and techniques; * evaluate the roles of plants in the urban community, in various technologies and industries, and in natural ecosystems. Specific Expectations Understanding Basic Concepts By the end of this course, students will: * illustrate how plants are classified by identifying similar and different characteristics of different types of plants (e.g., make a chart to demonstrate the unique structure and development of plants; examine the life cycle of plants); * describe the structure and physiology of plant tissues; * describe in words and/or diagrams the life cycle of plants, and differentiate between such divisions of plants as ferns and horsetails; * describe the processes of growth and differentiation in plants (e.g., describe the differentiation of germ cells in various tissues; compare meristem cells with elongated cells); * explain the role of tropisms in plants (e.g., describe the reaction of a plant to light, to gravity, or to humidity). Developing Skills of Inquiry and Communication By the end of this course, students will: * apply appropriate sampling procedures when collecting specimens of plants (e.g., collect specimens to illustrate the diversity of fallen cones in a selected coniferous stand); * identify new questions or problems arising from the study of the growth and maintenance of plants (e.g., What organic growing methods are both reliable and cost efficient? How can biotechnology be used in the cultivation of plants?); * on the basis of information gathered from print and electronic sources, develop, present, and defend a position or course of action related to the maintenance of plants (e.g., justify or argue against the use of pesticides to control insect infestation); * analyse the chemical and physical elements that contribute to plant production in the agriculture and forestry industries; * investigate tropisms by growing plants from seeds; * analyse plant metabolic processes, in a laboratory environment, by measuring the volume of gases produced and absorbed; * distinguish between monocot and dicot plants, using appropriate instruments and sources. Relating Science to Technology, Society, and the Environment By the end of this course, students will: * identify personal activities that may be influenced by their scientific study of plants (e.g., investigate the many issues involved in choosing to use chemical fertilizers and pesticides on the lawn; describe the scientific, psychological, and aesthetic benefits and/or drawbacks of maintaining plants in living spaces and classrooms); * outline the use of plants in the food, textile, pharmaceutical, and fresh produce industries; * explain the vital role of aquatic and marsh plants in the purification of urban, industrial, and agricultural waste or run-off water; * evaluate the importance of plant diversity both in maintaining natural ecosystems and in providing sources of medicines; * analyse the risks and benefits to society of using various agricultural technologies (e.g., genetically altered plants or growth hormones), and propose actions that can be taken to minimize risks. Environmental Science Overall Expectations By the end of this course, students will: * demonstrate an understanding of factors that influence the sustainability of the natural environment and evaluate their importance; * analyse how various factors influence the relationships between organisms and the natural environment; * explain why it is important to be aware of the impact of human activities on the natural environment. Specific Expectations Understanding Basic Concepts By the end of this course, students will: * demonstrate an understanding of the fundamental principles of taxonomy by classifying organisms from a local ecosystem; * assess the impact of agriculture on the natural environment; * use energy pyramids to explain the production, distribution, and use of food resources in a food chain (e.g., draw energy pyramids that illustrate human consumption of corn, of cattle, and of salmon); * explain the ecological role of representative organisms from each of the kingdoms of life (including Eubacteria and Archeabacteria); * describe and explain examples of symbiotic relationships (e.g., explain the mutual benefits of nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the root nodule of legumes, or the negative impact of a parasite on its host); * describe the flow of matter through the biogeochemical cycles (e.g., describe and illustrate the carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and water cycles); * describe and evaluate factors contributing to environmental resistance and a change in the carrying capacity of ecosystems; * define population growth and identify the factors that influence it; * compare the major Canadian biomes (e.g., tundra, taiga, deciduous forest, grasslands, and temperate rain forest) in terms of vegetation, climate, type of soil, agriculture, and forestry. Developing Skills of Inquiry and Communication By the end of this course, students will: * use appropriate sampling techniques to collect specimens in a local environment, and classify the specimens by applying the principles of taxonomy; * conduct a laboratory investigation into competition between species and evaluate the findings (e.g., investigate the competition for food among the different species of paramecium); * investigate and explain how a change in one population can affect the entire food web (e.g., explain how the killing off of species of fish by the lamprey eel affects fishing communities; explain the effects of the introduction of zebra mussels into the Great Lakes); * represent the growth of populations using mathematical calculations, graphs and charts of population growth and life cycles, and survivorship curves; * investigate, independently or collaboratively, the effect that human population growth has on the environment and the quality of life (e.g., examine effects, such as the movement or elimination of wildlife and plants, that are caused by the encroachment of human populations on ecosystems). Relating Science to Technology, Society, and the Environment By the end of this course, students will: * independently or collaboratively, synthesize and evaluate information from a variety of sources about an environmental and population-related issue, and propose a course of action (e.g., analyse a natural preserve as to its raison d’être, such as the species being conserved); * evaluate the local use of natural and technologically engineered pesticides and herbicides; * analyse, from a variety of perspectives, the risks and benefits to society and the environment of applying scientific knowledge of ecosystems or introducing a particular technology (e.g., examine the effects of recycling programs, or of introducing a species into an environment). Biology, Grade 12, University Preparation (SBI4U) This course provides students with the opportunity for in-depth study of the concepts and processes associated with biological systems. Students will study theory and conduct investigations in the areas of metabolic processes, molecular genetics, homeostasis, evolution, and population dynamics. Emphasis will be placed on achievement of the detailed knowledge and refined skills needed for further study in various branches of the life sciences and related fields. Prerequisite: Biology, Grade 11, University Preparation Throughout this course, students will: * demonstrate an understanding of safety practices consistent with Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System (WHMIS) legislation by selecting and applying appropriate techniques for handling, storing, and disposing of laboratory materials (e.g., use proper techniques in handling, storing, and disposing of bacteria, chemicals, and bio-hazardous waste); * select appropriate instruments and use them effectively and accurately in collecting observations and data (e.g., use molecular models to represent functional groups; perform gel electrophoresis or DNA extraction); * demonstrate the skills required to plan and carry out investigations, using laboratory equipment safely, effectively, and accurately (e.g., conduct an experiment to investigate the effect of temperature on enzymes); * select and use appropriate numeric, symbolic, graphical, and linguistic modes of representation to communicate scientific ideas, plans, and experimental results (e.g., use chemical formulae for biological molecules); * locate, select, analyse, and integrate information on topics under study, working independently and as part of a team, and using appropriate library and electronic research tools, including Internet sites; * compile, organize, and interpret data, using appropriate formats and treatments, including tables, flow charts, graphs, and diagrams (e.g., create a chart of hormone actions, or of homologous and analogous structures; create a timeline of recent discoveries in biotechnology); * communicate the procedures and results of investigations and research for specific purposes using data tables and laboratory reports (e.g., report on an experimental investigation of the effect of chemical stimuli on invertebrates, or the causes of fluctuation of a population); * express the result of any calculation involving experimental data to the appropriate number of decimal places or significant figures; * select and use appropriate SI units; * identify and describe science- and technology-based careers related to the subject area under study (e.g., genetic engineer, biochemist, genetic counsellor, microbiologist, pharmacologist, histologist, immunologist, palaeontologist, population ecologist, nutritionist). Metabolic Processes Overall Expectations By the end of this course, students will: * describe the structure and function of the macromolecules necessary for the normal metabolic functions of all living things, and the role of enzymes in maintaining normal metabolic functions; * conduct laboratory investigations into the transformation of energy in the cell, including photosynthesis and cellular respiration, and into the chemical and physical properties of biological molecules; * explain ways in which knowledge of the metabolic processes of living systems can contribute to technological development and affect community processes and personal choices in everyday life. Specific Expectations Understanding Basic Concepts By the end of this course, students will: * apply the laws of thermodynamics to the transfer of energy in the cell, particularly with respect to respiration and photosynthesis; * identify the functional groups within biological molecules (e.g., hydroxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, amino, phosphate) and explain how they contribute to the function of each molecule (e.g., use molecular models to determine whether a molecule is polar or non-polar, and relate this property to diffusion through a plasma membrane); * describe the chemical structure, mechanisms, and dynamics of enzymes in cellular metabolism (e.g., the function of enzymes in metabolic reactions in mitochondria or chloroplasts); * identify and describe the four main types of biochemical reactions: redox, hydrolysis, condensation, and neutralization; * describe how such molecules as glucose, ATP, pyruvic acid, NADH, and oxygen function within energy transformations in the cell, and explain the roles of such cell components as mitochondria, chloroplasts, and enzymes in the processes of cellular respiration and photosynthesis; * compare matter and energy transformations associated with the processes of cellular respiration (aerobic and anaerobic) and photosynthesis (e.g., for each process, compare the role of oxygen and the role of organelles, such as mitochondria and chloroplasts). Developing Skills of Inquiry and Communication By the end of this course, students will: * formulate operational definitions of the terms related to metabolic processes (e.g., use the following terms in relation to cell metabolism: electronegativity, isomer, functional group, polymer, organic acid, organic base, solubility, enzyme, substrate, reaction rate); * investigate the structures of biological molecules and functional groups using computer-generated, three-dimensional images and/or by building molecular models (e.g., simple carbohydrates, amino acids, simple polypeptides); * investigate and explain the relationship between metabolism and the structure of biomolecules, using problem-solving techniques (e.g., analyse the difference between the metabolic rates of sweet corn and starchy corn); * design and carry out an experiment related to a cell process (e.g., enzyme activity, membrane transport), controlling the major variables and adapting or extending procedures where required (e.g., conduct an experiment to find optimal conditions [pH, concentration, and temperature] for various enzymes and membrane transport); * determine the similarities and differences between mitochondria and chloroplasts (e.g., compare the structure and function of a mitochondrion and a chloroplast by examining micrographs and identifying reactants, products, and pathways); * interpret qualitative and quantitative observations, gathered through investigation, of the products of cellular respiration and photosynthesis (e.g., type and quantity produced) and, either by hand or by computer, compile and display the results in an appropriate format. Relating Science to Technology, Society, and the Environment By the end of this course, students will: * relate knowledge gained from their current studies of metabolism to their learning in the fields of chemical thermodynamics and physical energy; * describe technological applications of enzyme activity in the food and pharmaceutical industries (e.g., the production of dairy products using micro-organisms; the use of yeast to make bread; the use of enzymes to control reaction rates in the pharmaceutical industry); * explain the relevance, in their personal lives and the life of the community, of the study of cell biology and related technologies (e.g., explain how their learning about metabolic processes is relevant to their personal choices about exercise, diet, and the use of pharmacological substances). Molecular Genetics Overall Expectations By the end of this course, students will: * explain the concepts of gene and gene expression and the roles of DNA, RNA, and chromosomes in cellular metabolism, growth, and division, and demonstrate an awareness of the universality of the genetic code; * explain, through laboratory activities and conceptual models, processes within the cell nucleus; * describe some of the theoretical issues surrounding scientific research into genetic continuity; the general impact and philosophical implications of the knowledge gained; and some of the issues raised by related technological applications. Specific Expectations Understanding Basic Concepts By the end of this course, students will: * compare the structure and function of RNA and DNA, and explain their roles in protein synthesis; * describe the current model of DNA replication and methods of repair following an error; * explain the steps involved in protein synthesis (e.g., transcription and translation) and the control mechanisms for genetic expression using regulatory proteins (e.g., lac operon, tryp operon); * describe how mutagens such as radiation and chemicals can change the genetic material in cells by causing mutations (e.g., point mutations and frame-shifts); * demonstrate an understanding of genetic manipulation, and of its industrial and agricultural applications (e.g., describe the processes involved in cloning, or in sequencing of DNA bases; explain the processes involved in the manipulation of genetic material and protein synthesis; explain the development and mechanisms of the polymerization chain reaction); * describe the functions of the cell components used in genetic engineering (e.g., the roles of plasmids, restriction enzymes, recombinant DNA, and vectors); * outline contributions of genetic engineers, molecular biologists, and biochemists that have led to the further development of the field of genetics (e.g., the findings of Cohen-Boyer [1973], Chilton [1981], and Stanford [1988]; transfer of the somatotropine gene [1990]). Developing Skills of Inquiry and Communication By the end of this course, students will: * illustrate the genetic code by examining/ analysing a segment of DNA (e.g., compare base sequences of DNA for an enzyme in humans and another animal; compare base sequences in DNA in order to recognize an anomaly); * interpret micrographs that demonstrate the cellular structures involved in protein synthesis; * investigate and analyse the cell components involved in protein synthesis, using laboratory equipment safely and appropriately (e.g., extract DNA; compare different proteins; separate DNA or polypeptides using electrophoresis); * describe the major findings that have arisen from the Human Genome Project (e.g., create a timeline of the project, or make a chart of the discoveries). Relating Science to Technology, Society, and the Environment By the end of this course, students will: * explain the roles of evidence, theories, and paradigms in the development of scientific knowledge about genetics (e.g., explain the impact of cloning a sheep on the theory of differentiation; explain the impact of the discovery of the structure of DNA as the universal molecule for living organisms); * describe the principal elements of the Canadian regulations on biotechnological products, and explain their implications (e.g., consult Environment Canada or Food and Health Canada for the regulations; or use current websites for agencies such as Agriculture Canada that list new products). Homeostasis Overall Expectations By the end of this course, students will: * describe and explain the physiological and biochemical mechanisms involved in the maintenance of homeostasis; * analyse, through experiments and the use of models, the feedback mechanisms that maintain chemical and physical homeostasis in animal systems; * analyse how environmental factors (physical, chemical, emotional, and microbial) and technological applications affect/contribute to the maintenance of homeostasis, and examine related societal issues. Specific Expectations Understanding Basic Concepts By the end of this course, students will: * describe the anatomy and physiology of the endocrine and nervous systems, and explain their roles in homeostasis; * explain the action of hormones in the female and male reproductive systems, including the feedback mechanisms involved; * explain the role of the kidney in maintaining water and ion balance; * describe and explain homeostatic processes involved in maintaining water, ionic, thermal, and acid-base equilibria in response to both a changing environment and medical treatments (e.g., explain the feedback mechanisms involved in water balance or thermo-regulation; explain the buffering system of blood; describe the effect of disorders of the nervous system or endocrine system; describe how chemotherapy affects homeostasis); * describe the mammalian immunological response to a viral or bacterial infection; * predict the impact of environmental factors such as allergens on homeostasis within an organism. Developing Skills of Inquiry and Communication By the end of this course, students will: * construct a model that illustrates the essential components of the homeostatic process (e.g., use a flow chart to describe representative feedback mechanisms in living things); * design and carry out an experiment to investigate a feedback system (e.g., record physiological effects of drinking coffee); * design and conduct an experiment using invertebrates to study the response to external stimuli (e.g., instinctive behaviour in response to chemical stimuli or light); * compile and display, either by hand or computer, data and information about homeostatic phenomena in a variety of formats, including diagrams, flow charts, tables, graphs, and scatter plots (e.g., create a chart of hormones showing the source, stimulation, target organ, action and nature, and related disorders for each; make a graph of the reaction time of the pupil of the eye when stimulated by light of different colours; create a chart of allergies and the foods that trigger them). Relating Science to Technology, Society, and the Environment By the end of this course, students will: * synthesize case study information about the effects of taking chemical substances to enhance performance or improve health (e.g., explain the effect of steroids on health; debate the wisdom of taking large quantities of vitamins or amino acids; describe substances people use to cope with stress); * present informed opinions about problems related to the health industry, health legislation, and personal health (e.g., describe issues related to transplants or kidney dialysis; discuss the difficulties in treating neurological and infectious diseases); * describe some Canadian contributions to knowledge and technology in the field of homeostasis (e.g., the discovery of a new blood stem cell; the discovery of insulin). Evolution Overall Expectations By the end of this course, students will: * analyse evolutionary mechanisms, and the processes and products of evolution; * evaluate the scientific evidence that supports the theory of evolution; * analyse how the science of evolution can be related to current areas of biological study, and how technological development has extended or modified knowledge in the field of evolution. Specific Expectations Understanding Basic Concepts By the end of this course, students will: * define the concept of speciation and explain the mechanisms of speciation; * describe, and put in historical and cultural context, some scientists’ contributions that have changed evolutionary concepts (e.g., describe the contributions – and the prevailing beliefs of their time – of Lyell, Malthus, Lamarck, Darwin, and Gould and Eldridge); * analyse evolutionary mechanisms (e.g., natural selection, sexual selection, genetic variation, genetic drift, artificial selection, biotechnology) and their effects on biodiversity and extinction (e.g., describe examples that illustrate current theories of evolution, such as the darkening over time, in polluted areas, of the pigment of the peppered moth, an example of industrial melanism); * explain, using examples, the process of adaptation of individual organisms to their environment (e.g., explain the significance of a short life cycle in the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria populations). Developing Skills of Inquiry and Communication By the end of this course, students will: * outline evidence and arguments pertaining to the origin, development, and diversity of living organisms on Earth (e.g., evaluate current evidence that supports the theory of evolution and that feeds the debate on gradualism and punctuated equilibrium); * identify questions to investigate that arise from concepts of evolution and diversity (e.g., Why do micro-organisms evolve so quickly? What factors have contributed to the dilemma that pharmaceutical companies face in trying to develop new antibiotics because so many micro-organisms are resistant to existing antibiotics?); * solve problems related to evolution using the Hardy-Weinberg equation; * develop and use appropriate sampling procedures to conduct investigations into questions related to evolution (e.g., to determine the incidence of various hereditary characteristics in a given population), and record data and information; * formulate and weigh hypotheses that reflect the various perspectives that have influenced the development of the theory of evolution (e.g., apply different theoretical models for interpreting evidence). Relating Science to Technology, Society, and the Environment By the end of this course, students will: * relate present-day research and theories on the mechanisms of evolution to current ideas in molecular genetics (e.g., relate current thinking about adaptations to ideas about genetic mutations); * describe and analyse examples of technology that have extended or modified the scientific understanding of evolution (e.g., the contribution of radiometric dating to the palaeontological analysis of fossils). Population Dynamics Overall Expectations By the end of this course, students will: * analyse the components of population growth, and explain the factors that affect the growth of various populations of species; * investigate, analyse, and evaluate populations, their interrelationships within ecosystems, and their effect on the sustainability of life on this planet; * evaluate the carrying capacity of the Earth, and relate the carrying capacity to the growth of populations, their consumption of natural resources, and advances in technology. Specific Expectations Understanding Basic Concepts By the end of this course, students will: * explain the concepts of interaction (e.g., competition, predation, defence mechanisms, symbiotic relationships, parasitic relationships) among different species of animals and plants; * describe characteristics of a population, such as growth, density, distribution, carrying capacity, minimum/viable size; * compare and explain the fluctuation of a population of a species of plant, wild animal, and micro-organism, with an emphasis on such factors as carrying capacity, fecundity, and predation; * use examples of the energy pyramid to explain production, distribution, and use of food resources; * explain the demographic changes observed over the past ten thousand years (e.g., explain the effect on populations of such factors as epidemics, the rise of agriculture, the Industrial Revolution, and the development of modern medicine); * explain, using demographic principles, problems related to the rapid growth of human populations and the effects of that growth on future generations (e.g., relate the carrying capacity of the Earth to the growth of populations and their consumption of resources). Developing Skills of Inquiry and Communication By the end of this course, students will: * use conceptual and mathematical models to determine the growth of populations of various species in an ecosystem (e.g., use the concepts of exponential, sigmoid, and sinusoidal growth to describe and predict various populations); * determine experimentally the characteristics of population growth of two populations (e.g., examine the population cycles of a predator and a prey, or those of two populations that compete for food); * using the ecological hierarchy for living things, evaluate how a change in one population can affect the entire hierarchy both physically and economically (e.g., the effects of the killing off of species of fish by lamprey eels, or the results of the introduction of zebra mussels into the Great Lakes); * investigate, individually or collaboratively, the effects of human population growth on the environment and the quality of life (e.g., effects on ecosystems, such as the elimination of wildlife, plants, and farmland; causes and effects of ozone depletion or acid rain). Relating Science to Technology, Society, and the Environment By the end of this course, students will: * analyse Canadian investments in human resources and agricultural technology in a developing country (e.g., investigate Canadian International Development Agency [CIDA]-funded projects in a developing country); * describe examples of stable food-production technologies that nourish a dense and expanding population; * outline the advances in medical care and technology that have contributed to an increase in life expectancy, and relate these developments to demographic issues. Chemistry Chemistry, Grade 11, University Preparation (SCH3U) This course focuses on the concepts and theories that form the basis of modern chemistry. Students will study the behaviours of solids, liquids, gases, and solutions; investigate changes and relationships in chemical systems; and explore how chemistry is used in developing new products and processes that affect our lives and our environment. Emphasis will also be placed on the importance of chemistry in other branches of science. Prerequisite: Science, Grade 10, Academic Throughout this course, students will: * demonstrate an understanding of safe laboratory practices by selecting and applying appropriate techniques for handling, storing, and disposing of laboratory materials (e.g., safely disposing of hazardous solutions; correctly interpreting Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System [WHMIS] symbols), and using appropriate personal protection (e.g., wearing safety goggles); * select appropriate instruments and use them effectively and accurately in collecting observations and data (e.g., use a balance to accurately measure the mass of a precipitate); * demonstrate the skills required to plan and carry out investigations using laboratory equipment safely, effectively, and accurately (e.g., plan and carry out an investigation to determine the percentage composition of a compound); * demonstrate a knowledge of emergency laboratory procedures; * select and use appropriate numeric, symbolic, graphical, and linguistic modes of representation to communicate scientific ideas, plans, and experimental results (e.g., present a detailed experimental report according to specified standards); * compile and interpret data or other information gathered from print, laboratory, and electronic sources, including Internet sites, to research a topic, solve a problem, or support an opinion (e.g., research the uses of the most common products of the refining of petroleum); * communicate the procedures and results of investigations for specific purposes by displaying evidence and information, either in writing or using a computer, in various forms, including flow charts, tables, graphs, and laboratory reports (e.g., draw a graph of the relationship between the volume and pressure of a fixed amount of gas at constant temperature); * express the result of any calculation involving experimental data to the appropriate number of decimal places or significant figures; * select and use appropriate SI units (units of measurement of the Système international d’unités, or International System of Units); * identify and describe science- and technology-based careers related to the subject area under study (e.g., describe careers in the area of hydrocarbons and energy, such as chemical engineering, or careers in transportation related to the research and development of new fuels). Matter and Chemical Bonding Overall Expectations By the end of this course, students will: * demonstrate an understanding of the relationship between periodic tendencies, types of chemical bonding, and the properties of ionic and molecular compounds; * carry out laboratory studies of chemical reactions, analyse chemical reactions in terms of the type of reaction and the reactivity of starting materials, and use appropriate symbols and formulae to represent the structure and bonding of chemical substances; * describe how an understanding of matter and its properties can lead to the production of useful substances and new technologies. Specific Expectations Understanding Basic Concepts By the end of this course, students will: * define and describe the relationship among atomic number, mass number, atomic mass, isotope, and radio isotope; * demonstrate an understanding of the periodic law, and describe how electron arrangement and forces in atoms can explain periodic trends such as atomic radius, ionization energy, electron affinity, and electronegativity; * demonstrate an understanding of the formation of ionic and covalent bonds and explain the properties of the products; * explain how different elements combine to form covalent and ionic bonds using the octet rule; * demonstrate an understanding of the relationship between the type of chemical reaction (e.g., synthesis, decomposition, single and double displacement) and the nature of the reactants; * relate the reactivity of a series of elements to their position in the periodic table (e.g., compare the reactivity of metals in a group and metals in the same period; compare the reactivity of non-metals in a group). Developing Skills of Inquiry and Communication By the end of this course, students will: * use appropriate scientific vocabulary to communicate ideas related to chemical reactions (e.g., electronegativity, chemical bond, periodic trend, ionization energy, electron affinity); * analyse data involving periodic properties such as ionization energy and atomic radius in order to recognize general trends in the periodic table; * predict the ionic character or polarity of a given bond using electronegativity values, and represent the formation of ionic and covalent bonds using diagrams; * draw Lewis structures, construct molecular models, and give the structural formulae for compounds containing single and multiple bonds; * write, using IUPAC or traditional systems, the formulae of binary and tertiary compounds, including those containing elements with multiple valences, and recognize the formulae in various contexts; * predict the products of, and write chemical equations to represent, synthesis, decomposition, substitution, and double displacement reactions, and test the predictions through experimentation; * investigate through experimentation the reactions of elements (e.g., metals) to produce an activity series. Relating Science to Technology, Society, and the Environment By the end of this course, students will: * identify chemical substances and reactions in everyday use or of environmental significance (e.g., fertilizers, greenhouse gases, photosynthesis); * relate common names of substances to their systematic names (e.g., muriatic acid and hydrochloric acid; baking soda and sodium bicarbonate); * evaluate and compare the reactivity of metals and alloys (e.g., gold in jewellery, iron and stainless steel), and explain why most metals are found in nature as compounds; * demonstrate an understanding of the need for the safe use of chemicals in everyday life (e.g., cleaners in the home, pesticides in the garden). Quantities in Chemical Reactions Overall Expectations By the end of this course, students will: * demonstrate an understanding of the mole concept and its significance in the analysis of chemical systems; * carry out experiments and complete calculations based on quantitative relationships in balanced chemical reactions; * demonstrate an awareness of the importance of quantitative chemical relationships in the home or in industry. Specific Expectations Understanding Basic Concepts By the end of this course, students will: * demonstrate an understanding of Avogadro’s number, the mole concept, and the relationship between the mole and molar mass; * explain the relationship between isotopic abundance and relative atomic mass; * distinguish between the empirical formula and the molecular formula of a compound; * explain the law of definite proportions; * state the quantitative relationships expressed in a chemical equation (e.g., in moles, grams, atoms, ions, or molecules). Developing Skills of Inquiry and Communication By the end of this course, students will: * use appropriate scientific vocabulary to communicate ideas related to chemical calculations (e.g., stoichiometry, percentage yield, limiting reagent, mole, atomic mass); * determine percentage composition of a compound through experimentation, as well as through analysis of the formula and a table of relative atomic masses (e.g., composition of a hydrate); * solve problems involving quantity in moles, number of particles, and mass; * determine empirical formulae and molecular formulae, given molar masses and percentage composition or mass data; * balance chemical equations by inspection; * balance simple nuclear equations; * calculate, for any given reactant or product in a chemical equation, the corresponding mass or quantity in moles or molecules of any other reactant or product; * solve problems involving percentage yield and limiting reagents; * compare, using laboratory results, the theoretical yield of a reaction (e.g., of steel wool and copper II sulfate solution) to the actual yield, calculate the percentage yield, and suggest sources of experimental error. Relating Science to Technology, Society, and the Environment By the end of this course, students will: * give examples of the application of chemical quantities and calculations (e.g., in cooking recipes, in industrial reactions, in prescription drug dosages); * explain how different stoichiometric combinations of elements in compounds can produce substances with different properties (e.g., water and hydrogen peroxide, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide); * identify everyday situations and work-related contexts in which analysis of unknown substances is important (e.g., quality control of composition of products; drug analysis in forensics). Solutions and Solubility Overall Expectations By the end of this course, students will: * demonstrate an understanding of the properties of solutions, the concept of concentration, and the importance of water as a solvent; * carry out experiments and other laboratory procedures involving solutions, and solve quantitative problems involving solutions; * relate a scientific knowledge of solutions and solubility to everyday applications, and explain how environmental water quality depends on the concentrations of a variety of dissolved substances. Specific Expectations Understanding Basic Concepts By the end of this course, students will: * demonstrate an understanding of the importance of water as a universal solvent and describe the properties of this liquid (e.g., polarity, hydrogen bonding); * explain solution formation that involves the dissolving of ionic or non-ionic substances in water (e.g., oxygen in water, salt in water) and the dissolving of non-polar solutes in non-polar solvents (e.g., grease in gasoline); * describe the dependence on temperature of solubility in water for solids, liquids, and gases; * describe common combinations of aqueous solutions that result in the formation of precipitates; * demonstrate an understanding of the Arrhenius and Bronsted-Lowry theories of acids and bases; * explain qualitatively, in terms of degree of dissociation, the difference between strong and weak acids and bases; * demonstrate an understanding of the operational definition of pH (i.e., pH = –log10[H+]). Developing Skills of Inquiry and Communication By the end of this course, students will: * use appropriate scientific vocabulary to communicate ideas related to aqueous solutions (e.g., concentration, solubility, conjugate acid, precipitate); * solve problems involving concentration of solutions and express the results in various units (e.g., moles per litre, grams per 100 mL, parts per million [and billion], mass or volume per cent); * prepare solutions of required concentration by dissolving a solid solute or diluting a concentrated solution; * determine, through experiments, qualitative and quantitative properties of solutions (e.g., perform a qualitative analysis of ions in a solution; plot solubility curves for some common solutes in water), and solve problems based on such experiments; * represent precipitation reactions by their net ionic equations; * determine through experimentation the effect of dilution on the pH of an acid or a base; * write balanced chemical equations for reactions involving acids and bases (e.g., dissociation, displacement, and neutralization reactions); * solve stoichiometry problems involving solutions; * use a titration procedure to determine the concentration of an acid or base in solution (e.g., acetic acid in vinegar). Relating Science to Technology, Society, and the Environment By the end of this course, students will: * supply examples from everyday life of solutions involving all three states (e.g., carbonated water, seawater, alloys, air); * describe examples of solutions for which the concentration must be known and exact (e.g., intravenous solutions, drinking water); * explain the origins of pollutants in natural waters (e.g., landfill leachates, agricultural run-off), and identify the allowable concentrations of metallic and organic pollutants in drinking water; * describe the technology and the major steps involved in the purification of drinking water and the treatment of waste water; * explain hardness of water, its consequences (e.g., pipe scaling), and water-softening methods (e.g., ion exchange resins). Gases and Atmospheric Chemistry Overall Expectations By the end of this course, students will: * demonstrate an understanding of the laws that govern the behaviour of gases; * investigate through experimentation the relationships among the pressure, volume, and temperature of a gas, and solve problems involving quantity of substance in moles, molar masses and volumes, and the gas laws; * describe how knowledge of gases has helped to advance technology, and how such technological advances have led to a better understanding of environmental phenomena and issues. Specific Expectations Understanding Basic Concepts By the end of this course, students will: * explain different states of matter in terms of the forces between atoms, molecules, and ions; * describe the gaseous state, using kinetic molecular theory, in terms of degree of disorder and types of motion of atoms and molecules; * describe the quantitative relationships that exist among the following variables for an ideal gas: pressure, volume, temperature, and amount of substance; * explain Dalton’s law of partial pressures; * state Avogadro’s hypothesis and describe his contribution to our understanding of reactions of gases; * identify the major and minor components of the atmosphere. Developing Skills of Inquiry and Communication By the end of this course, students will: * use appropriate scientific vocabulary to communicate ideas related to gases (e.g., standard temperature, standard pressure, molar volume, ideal gas); * use and interconvert appropriate units to express pressure (e.g., pascals, atmospheres, mm Hg) and temperature (e.g., Celsius and Kelvin scales); * determine through experimentation the quantitative and graphical relationships among the pressure, volume, and temperature of an ideal gas; * solve quantitative problems involving the following gas laws: Charles’s law, Boyle’s law, the combined gas law, Gay-Lussac’s law, Dalton’s law of partial pressures, the ideal gas law; * perform stoichiometric calculations involving the quantitative relationships among the quantity of substances in moles, the number of atoms, the number of molecules, the mass, and the volume of the substances in a balanced chemical equation; * determine the molar volume of a gas through experimentation (e.g., calculate the molar volume of hydrogen gas from the reaction of magnesium with hydrochloric acid). Relating Science to Technology, Society, and the Environment By the end of this course, students will: * describe natural phenomena (e.g., geysers, volcanic eruptions) and technological products (e.g., rocket engine, carbonated drinks, air bags) associated with gases; * explain Canadian initiatives to improve air quality (e.g., the recycling of chlorofluorocarbons, the Montreal Protocol); * identify technological products and safety concerns associated with compressed gases (e.g., propane tanks, medical oxygen tanks, welders’ acetylene tanks); * describe how knowledge of gases is applied in other areas of study (e.g., meteorology, medical anaesthetics, undersea exploration). Hydrocarbons and Energy Overall Expectations By the end of this course, students will: * demonstrate an understanding of the structure and properties of hydrocarbons, especially with respect to the energy changes that occur in their combustion; * describe and investigate the properties of hydrocarbons, and apply calorimetric techniques to the calculation of energy changes; * evaluate the impact of hydrocarbons on our quality of life and the environment through an examination of some of their uses. Specific Expectations Understanding Basic Concepts By the end of this course, students will: * identify the origins and major sources of organic compounds; * demonstrate an understanding of the particular characteristics of the carbon atom, especially with respect to bonding in both aliphatic and cyclic alkanes, including structural isomers; * describe some of the physical and chemical properties of hydrocarbons (e.g., solubility in water, density, melting point, boiling point, and combustibility of the alkanes); * compare the energy changes observed when chemical bonds are formed and when they are broken, and relate these changes to endothermic and exothermic reactions; * explain how mass, heat capacity, and change in temperature of an object determine the amount of heat it gains or loses; * identify ways in which reactants, products, and a heat term are combined to form thermochemical equations representing endothermic and exothermic chemical changes. Developing Skills of Inquiry and Communication By the end of this course, students will: * use appropriate scientific vocabulary to communicate ideas related to hydrocarbons and the energy changes involved in their combustion (e.g., organic compound, saturated hydrocarbons, unsaturated hydrocarbons, isomer, heat capacity); * name, using the IUPAC nomenclature system, and draw structural representations for, aliphatic and cyclic hydrocarbons containing no more than ten carbon atoms in the main chain, with or without sidechains; * use molecular models to demonstrate the arrangement of atoms in isomers of hydrocarbons (e.g., structural and cis-trans isomers); * determine through experimentation some of the characteristic properties of saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons (e.g., compare the products obtained when bromine is added to cyclohexane and cyclohexene separately); * carry out an experiment involving the production or combustion of a hydrocarbon (e.g., formation of acetylene, burning paraffin) and write the corresponding balanced chemical equation; * write balanced chemical equations for the complete and incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons; * gather and interpret experimental data and solve problems involving calorimetry and the equation Q = mcT (e.g., calculate the energy liberated in the combustion of paraffin in J/g). Relating Science to Technology, Society, and the Environment By the end of this course, students will: * describe the steps involved in refining petroleum to obtain gasoline and other useful fractions (e.g., butane, furnace oil, industrial chemicals and solvents); * demonstrate an understanding of the importance of hydrocarbons as fuels (e.g., propane for barbecues) and in other applications, such as the manufacture of polymers, and identify the risks and benefits of these uses to society and the environment. Chemistry, Grade 12, University Preparation (SCH4U) This course enables students to deepen their understanding of chemistry through the study of organic chemistry, energy changes and rates of reaction, chemical systems and equilibrium, electrochemistry, and atomic and molecular structure. Students will further develop problem-solving and laboratory skills as they investigate chemical processes, at the same time refining their ability to communicate scientific information. Emphasis will be placed on the importance of chemistry in daily life, and on evaluating the impact of chemical technology on the environment. Prerequisite: Chemistry, Grade 11, University Preparation Throughout this course, students will: * demonstrate an understanding of safe laboratory practices by selecting and applying appropriate techniques for handling, storing, and disposing of laboratory materials (e.g., safely disposing of organic solutions; correctly interpreting Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System [WHMIS] symbols), and using appropriate personal protection (e.g., wearing safety goggles); * select appropriate instruments and use them effectively and accurately in collecting observations and data (e.g., use a calorimeter in heat transfer experiments); * demonstrate the skills required to plan and carry out investigations using laboratory equipment safely, effectively, and accurately (e.g., select and use apparatus safely in an experiment to determine the mass of a metal deposited by electroplating); * demonstrate a knowledge of emergency laboratory procedures; * select and use appropriate numeric, symbolic, graphical, and linguistic modes of representation to communicate scientific ideas, plans, and experimental results (e.g., use the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion [VSEPR] model to predict the shapes of molecules); * compile and interpret data or other information gathered from print, laboratory, and electronic sources, including Internet sites, to research a topic, solve a problem, or support an opinion (e.g., research the uses of the most commonly synthesized organic compounds); * communicate the procedures and results of investigations for specific purposes by displaying evidence and information, either in writing or using a computer, in various forms, including flow charts, tables, graphs, and laboratory reports (e.g., construct visual models that explain intermolecular and intramolecular forces); * express the result of any calculation involving experimental data to the appropriate number of decimal places or significant figures; * select and use appropriate SI units; * identify and describe science- and technology-based careers related to the subject area under study (e.g., describe careers related to thermochemistry, such as chemical engineering). Organic Chemistry Overall Expectations By the end of this course, students will: * demonstrate an understanding of the structure of various organic compounds, and of chemical reactions involving these compounds; * investigate various organic compounds through research and experimentation, predict the products of organic reactions, and name and represent the structures of organic compounds using the IUPAC system and molecular models; * evaluate the impact of organic compounds on our standard of living and the environment. Specific Expectations Understanding Basic Concepts By the end of this course, students will: * distinguish among the different classes of organic compounds, including alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, esters, ethers, amines, and amides, by name and by structural formula; * describe some physical properties of the classes of organic compounds in terms of solubility in different solvents, molecular polarity, odour, and melting and boiling points; * describe different types of organic reactions, such as substitution, addition, elimination, oxidation, esterification, and hydrolysis; * demonstrate an understanding of the processes of addition and condensation polymerization; * describe a variety of organic compounds present in living organisms, and explain their importance to those organisms (e.g., proteins, carbohydrates, fats, nucleic acids). Developing Skills of Inquiry and Communication By the end of this course, students will: * use appropriate scientific vocabulary to communicate ideas related to organic chemistry (e.g., functional group, polymer); * use the IUPAC system to name and write appropriate structures for the different classes of organic compounds, including alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, esters, ethers, amines, amides, and simple aromatic compounds; * build molecular models of a variety of aliphatic, cyclic, and aromatic organic compounds; * identify some nonsystematic names for organic compounds (e.g., acetone, isopropyl alcohol, acetic acid); * predict and correctly name the products of organic reactions, including substitution, addition, elimination, esterification, hydrolysis, oxidation, and polymerization reactions (e.g., preparation of an ester, oxidation of alcohols with permanganate); * carry out laboratory procedures to synthesize organic compounds (e.g., preparation of an ester, polymerization). Relating Science to Technology, Society, and the Environment By the end of this course, students will: * present informed opinions on the validity of the use of the terms organic, natural, and chemical in the promotion of consumer goods; * describe the variety and importance of organic compounds in our lives (e.g., plastics, synthetic fibres, pharmaceutical products); * analyse the risks and benefits of the development and application of synthetic products (e.g., polystyrene, aspartame, pesticides, solvents); * provide examples of the use of organic chemistry to improve technical solutions to existing or newly identified health, safety, and environmental problems (e.g., leaded versus unleaded gasoline; hydrocarbon propellants versus chlorofluorocarbons [CFCs]). Energy Changes and Rates of Reaction Overall Expectations By the end of this course, students will: * demonstrate an understanding of the energy transformations and kinetics of chemical changes; * determine energy changes for physical and chemical processes and rates of reaction, using experimental data and calculations; * demonstrate an understanding of the dependence of chemical technologies and processes on the energetics of chemical reactions. Specific Expectations Understanding Basic Concepts By the end of this course, students will: * compare the energy changes resulting from physical change, chemical reactions, and nuclear reactions (fission and fusion); * explain Hess’s law, using examples; * describe, with the aid of a graph, the rate of reaction as a function of the change of concentration of a reactant or product with respect to time; express the rate of reaction as a rate law equation (first- or second-order reactions only); and explain the concept of half-life for a reaction; * explain, using collision theory and potential energy diagrams, how factors such as temperature, surface area, nature of reactants, catalysts, and concentration control the rate of chemical reactions; * analyse simple potential energy diagrams of chemical reactions (e.g., potential energy diagrams showing the relative energies of reactants, products, and activated complex); * demonstrate understanding that most reactions occur as a series of elementary steps in a reaction mechanism. Developing Skills of Inquiry and Communication By the end of this course, students will: * use appropriate scientific vocabulary to communicate ideas related to the energetics of chemical reactions (e.g., enthalpy, activated complex); * write thermochemical equations, expressing the energy change as a H value or as a heat term in the equation; * determine heat of reaction using a calorimeter, and use the data obtained to calculate the enthalpy change for a reaction (e.g., neutralization of sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid); * apply Hess’s law to solve problems, including problems that involve data obtained through experimentation (e.g., measure heats of reaction that can be combined to yield the H of combustion of magnesium); * calculate heat of reaction using tabulated enthalpies of formation; * determine through experimentation a rate of reaction (e.g., of hydrogen peroxide decomposition), and measure the effect on it of temperature, concentration, and catalysis. Relating Science to Technology, Society, and the Environment By the end of this course, students will: * compare conventional and alternative sources of energy with respect to efficiency and environmental impact (e.g., burning fossil fuels, solar energy, nuclear fission); * describe examples of technologies that depend on exothermic or endothermic changes (e.g., hydrogen rocket fuel, hot and cold packs); * describe the use of catalysts in industry (e.g., catalytic converters) and in biochemical systems (e.g., enzymes) on the basis of information gathered from print and electronic sources; * describe examples of slow chemical reactions (e.g., rusting), rapid reactions (e.g., explosions), and reactions whose rates can be controlled (e.g., food decay, catalytic decomposition of automobile exhaust). Chemical Systems and Equilibrium Overall Expectations By the end of this course, students will: * demonstrate an understanding of the concept of chemical equilibrium, Le Chatelier’s principle, and solution equilibria; * investigate the behaviour of different equilibrium systems, and solve problems involving the law of chemical equilibrium; * explain the importance of chemical equilibrium in various systems, including ecological, biological, and technological systems. Specific Expectations Understanding Basic Concepts By the end of this course, students will: * illustrate the concept of dynamic equilibrium with reference to systems such as liquid-vapour equilibrium, weak electrolytes in solution, and chemical reactions; * demonstrate an understanding of the law of chemical equilibrium as it applies to the concentrations of the reactants and products at equilibrium; * demonstrate an understanding of how Le Chatelier’s principle can predict the direction in which a system at equilibrium will shift when volume, pressure, concentration, or temperature is changed; * identify, in qualitative terms, entropy changes associated with chemical and physical processes; * describe the tendency of reactions to achieve minimum energy and maximum entropy; * describe, using the concept of equilibrium, the behaviour of ionic solutes in solutions that are unsaturated, saturated, and supersaturated; * define constant expressions, such as Ksp, Kw, Ka, and Kb; * compare strong and weak acids and bases using the concept of equilibrium; * describe the characteristics and components of a buffer solution. Developing Skills of Inquiry and Communication By the end of this course, students will: * use appropriate vocabulary to communicate ideas, procedures, and results related to chemical systems and equilibrium (e.g., homogeneous, common ion, Ka value); * apply Le Chatelier’s principle to predict how various factors affect a chemical system at equilibrium, and confirm their predictions through experimentation; * carry out experiments to determine equilibrium constants (e.g., Keq for iron [III] thiocyanate, Ksp for calcium hydroxide, Ka for acetic acid); * calculate the molar solubility of a pure substance in water or in a solution of a common ion, given the solubility product constant (Ksp), and vice versa; * predict the formation of precipitates by using the solubility product constant; * solve equilibrium problems involving concentrations of reactants and products and the following quantities: Keq, Ksp, Ka, Kb, pH, pOH; * predict, in qualitative terms, whether a solution of a specific salt will be acidic, basic, or neutral; * solve problems involving acid-base titration data and the pH at the equivalence point. Relating Science to Technology, Society, and the Environment By the end of this course, students will: * explain how equilibrium principles may be applied to optimize the production of industrial chemicals (e.g., production of sulfuric acid, ammonia); * identify effects of solubility on biological systems (e.g., kidney stones, dissolved gases in the circulatory system of divers, the use of barium sulfate in medical diagnosis); * explain how buffering action affects our daily lives, using examples (e.g., the components in blood that help it to maintain a constant pH level; buffered medications). Electrochemistry Overall Expectations By the end of this course, students will: * demonstrate an understanding of fundamental concepts related to oxidation-reduction and the interconversion of chemical and electrical energy; * build and explain the functioning of simple galvanic and electrolytic cells; use equations to describe these cells; and solve quantitative problems related to electrolysis; * describe some uses of batteries and fuel cells; explain the importance of electrochemical technology to the production and protection of metals; and assess environmental and safety issues associated with these technologies. Specific Expectations Understanding Basic Concepts By the end of this course, students will: * demonstrate an understanding of oxidation and reduction in terms of the loss and the gain of electrons or change in oxidation number; * identify and describe the functioning of the components in galvanic and electrolytic cells; * describe electrochemical cells in terms of oxidation and reduction half-cells whose voltages can be used to determine overall cell potential; * describe the function of the hydrogen half-cell as a reference in assigning reduction potential values; * demonstrate an understanding of the interrelationship of time, current, and the amount of substance produced or consumed in an electrolytic process (Faraday’s law); * explain corrosion as an electrochemical process, and describe corrosion-inhibiting techniques (e.g., painting, galvanizing, cathodic protection). Developing Skills of Inquiry and Communication By the end of this course, students will: * use appropriate scientific vocabulary to communicate ideas related to electrochemistry (e.g., half-reaction, electrochemical cell, reducing agent, redox reaction, oxidation number); * demonstrate oxidation-reduction reactions through experiments, and analyse these reactions (e.g., compare the reactivity of some metals by arranging them in order of their ease of oxidation, which can be determined through observation of their ability to displace other metals from compounds; investigate the reactivity of oxidizing agents such as oxygen and various acids); * write balanced chemical equations for oxidation-reduction systems, including half-cell reactions; * determine oxidation and reduction half-cell reactions, direction of current flow, electrode polarity, cell potential, and ion movement in typical galvanic and electrolytic cells, including those assembled in the laboratory; * predict the spontaneity of redox reactions and overall cell potentials by studying a table of half-cell reduction potentials; * solve problems based on Faraday’s law; * measure through experimentation the mass of metal deposited by electroplating (e.g., copper from copper II sulfate), and apply Faraday’s law to relate the mass of metal deposited to the amount of charge passed. Relating Science to Technology, Society, and the Environment By the end of this course, students will: * describe examples of common galvanic cells (e.g., lead-acid, nickel-cadmium) and evaluate their environmental and social impact (e.g., describe how advances in the hydrogen fuel cell have facilitated the introduction of electric cars); * explain how electrolytic processes are involved in industrial processes (e.g., refining of metals, production of chlorine); * research and assess environmental, health, and safety issues involving electrochemistry (e.g., the corrosion of metal structures by oxidizing agents; industrial production of chlorine by electrolysis and its use in the purification of water). Structure and Properties Overall Expectations By the end of this course, students will: * demonstrate an understanding of quantum mechanical theory, and explain how types of chemical bonding account for the properties of ionic, molecular, covalent network, and metallic substances; * investigate and compare the properties of solids and liquids, and use bonding theory to predict the shape of simple molecules; * describe products and technologies whose development has depended on understanding molecular structure, and technologies that have advanced the knowledge of atomic and molecular theory. Specific Expectations Understanding Basic Concepts By the end of this course, students will: * explain the experimental observations and inferences made by Rutherford and Bohr in developing the planetary model of the hydrogen atom; * describe the quantum mechanical model of the atom (e.g., orbitals, electron probability density) and the contributions of individuals to this model (e.g., those of Planck, de Broglie, Einstein, Heisenberg, and Schrödinger); * list characteristics of the s, p, d, and f blocks of elements, and explain the relationship between position of elements in the periodic table, their properties, and their electron configurations; * explain how the properties of a solid or liquid (e.g., hardness, electrical conductivity, surface tension) depend on the nature of the particles present and the types of forces between them (e.g., covalent bonds, Van der Waals forces, dipole forces, and metallic bonds); * explain how the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) model can be used to predict molecular shape. Developing Skills of Inquiry and Communication By the end of this course, students will: * use appropriate scientific vocabulary to communicate ideas related to structure and bonding (e.g., orbital, absorption spectrum, quantum, photon, dipole); * write electron configurations for elements in the periodic table, using the Pauli exclusion principle and Hund’s rule; * predict molecular shape for simple molecules and ions, using the VSEPR model; * predict the polarity of various substances, using molecular shape and the electronegativity values of the elements of the substances; * predict the type of solid (ionic, molecular, covalent network, or metallic) formed by a substance, and describe its properties; * conduct experiments to observe and analyse the physical properties of different substances, and to determine the type of bonding present. Relating Science to Technology, Society, and the Environment By the end of this course, students will: * describe some applications of principles relating to atomic and molecular structure in analytical chemistry and medical diagnosis (e.g., infrared spectroscopy, X-ray crystallography, nuclear medicine, medical applications of spectroscopy); * describe some specialized new materials that have been created on the basis of the findings of research on the structure of matter, chemical bonding, and other properties of matter (e.g., bulletproof fabric, superconductors, superglue); * describe advances in Canadian research on atomic and molecular theory (e.g., the work of Richard Bader at McMaster University in developing electron-density maps for small molecules; the work of R.J. LeRoy at the University of Waterloo in developing the mathematical technique for determining the radius of molecules called the LeRoy Radius). Chemistry, Grade 12, College Preparation (SCH4C) This course introduces students to the concepts that form the basis of modern chemistry. Students will study qualitative analysis, quantitative relationships in chemical reactions, organic chemistry and electrochemistry, and chemistry as it relates to the quality of the environment. Students will employ a variety of laboratory techniques, develop skills in data collection and scientific analysis, and communicate scientific information using appropriate terminology. Emphasis will be placed on the role of chemistry in daily life and in the development of new technologies and products. Prerequisite: Science, Grade 10, Academic or Applied Throughout this course, students will: * demonstrate an understanding of safe laboratory practices by selecting and applying appropriate techniques for handling, storing, and disposing of laboratory materials (e.g., safely disposing of organic solutions; correctly interpreting Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System [WHMIS] symbols), and using appropriate personal protection (e.g., wearing safety goggles); * select appropriate instruments and use them effectively and accurately in collecting observations and data (e.g., use equipment such as a spectroscope and centrifuge to conduct qualitative analysis); * demonstrate the skills required to plan and carry out investigations using laboratory equipment safely, effectively, and accurately (e.g., manipulate burettes and other instruments used in an acid/base titration); * demonstrate a knowledge of emergency laboratory procedures; * select and use appropriate numeric, symbolic, graphical, and linguistic modes of representation to communicate scientific ideas, plans, and experimental results (e.g., represent ionic and molecular compounds by their accepted formulae and names); * select, integrate, and interpret information derived from experiments and from print and electronic sources, including Internet sites, and, either in writing or using a computer, compile and display the information in various forms, including diagrams, tables, graphs, and laboratory reports (e.g., using both experimental results and information from other sources, compile a table summarizing the physical and chemical properties of some common organic compounds); * express the result of any calculation involving experimental data to the appropriate number of decimal places or significant figures; * select and use appropriate SI units; * identify and describe science- and technology-based careers related to the subject area under study (e.g., describe careers related to analytical chemistry, such as laboratory technician or quality control officer). Matter and Qualitative Analysis Overall Expectations By the end of this course, students will: * demonstrate an understanding of the basic principles of qualitative analysis and underlying theories; * carry out qualitative analyses, using flow charts and appropriate laboratory equipment and instruments; * describe the role and importance in society of some of the applications of qualitative analysis. Specific Expectations Understanding Basic Concepts By the end of this course, students will: * explain the distinction between observation and inference; * describe and explain basic processes and phenomena involved in qualitative analysis, including flame tests, precipitation reactions, and absorption spectra; * relate observations from flame tests and absorption spectra to the concept of quanta of energy proposed by Bohr; * explain covalent bonding in simple molecules using Lewis structures (e.g., H2, Cl2, O2, H2O, CH4); * demonstrate an understanding of the formation of ionic bonds between metals and non-metals, and relate the charge on an ion to the number of electrons lost or gained. Developing Skills of Inquiry and Communication By the end of this course, students will: * use appropriate scientific vocabulary to communicate ideas related to qualitative analysis (e.g., double displacement, precipitate, energy levels); * conduct qualitative analyses using equipment and instruments such as the following: gas discharge tubes, high voltage electrical sources, spectroscope, centrifuge; * predict the precipitate formed in a chemical reaction by writing double displacement and net ionic equations and using a table of solubility rules; * use a flow chart and experimental procedures, including flame tests and precipitation reactions, to determine the presence of ions in an unknown sample (e.g., analyse a household or workplace chemical); * identify an unknown gas sample (e.g., hydrogen, helium, neon) by comparing its observed absorption spectrum with those of known gases. Relating Science to Technology, Society, and the Environment By the end of this course, students will: * describe some applications of spectroscopy (e.g., in astronomy to identify the composition of stars); * explain applications of qualitative analysis in various fields (e.g., discuss the use of qualitative analysis techniques in drug detection or in the identification of counterfeit money). Organic Chemistry Overall Expectations By the end of this course, students will: * demonstrate an understanding of the names and properties of organic compounds and some of their reactions; * carry out various laboratory tests and reactions involving organic compounds; * describe the importance of organic compounds in consumer products, technological devices, and biochemical applications, and explain some of the issues related to their environmental and social impact. Specific Expectations Understanding Basic Concepts By the end of this course, students will: * demonstrate an understanding of the particular characteristics of the carbon atom in terms of the type of bonding and the formation of long chains; * explain the general properties of molecules containing oxygen or nitrogen (e.g., polarity, solubility in water); * identify the functional group structures that define common families (e.g., alkenes, alkynes, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, acids, esters, amines); * describe, using structural formulae, typical organic reactions such as addition, combustion, and addition polymerization reactions; * explain the principle underlying the use of distillation to separate organic compounds. Developing Skills of Inquiry and Communication By the end of this course, students will: * use appropriate scientific vocabulary to communicate ideas related to organic chemistry (e.g., electronegativity, covalent bond, functional group, polymer); * select and use apparatus safely to separate a mixture of liquids by distillation; * draw Lewis structures to represent covalent bonding in organic molecules (e.g., methane, ethanol, butene, acetylene); * determine through experimentation the physical and chemical properties of some common organic compounds (e.g., aqueous and non-aqueous solubility, combustibility, conductivity, odour), and identify patterns and trends in these observations; * identify through experimentation some of the products of the combustion of a hydrocarbon and an alcohol, and write balanced chemical equations to represent the combustion reaction; * synthesize a condensation product (e.g., aspirin or an ester), a common organic compound (e.g., soap), and a synthetic polymer (e.g., cross-link polyvinyl alcohol using a solution of borax). Relating Science to Technology, Society, and the Environment By the end of this course, students will: * identify useful organic compounds (e.g., non-stick coatings for cookware) on the basis of information gathered from print and electronic sources, and illustrate their molecular structure and functional groups using representations drawn by hand or by computer; * describe the role of distillation and cracking in the production of useful fuels from crude oil; * explain the dangers associated with the use of organic solvents (e.g., combustibility, toxicity) and the necessary precautions to be taken; * identify issues connected to the growing use of plastics (e.g., the consumption of fossil fuels, waste disposal), and suggest alternative materials that could be used; * describe how organic chemistry has led to the development of useful new products (e.g., synthetic fabrics, automobile body panels, artificial heart valves). Electrochemistry Overall Expectations By the end of this course, students will: * demonstrate an understanding of the chemical processes that take place in galvanic and electrolytic cells; * investigate through experimentation the ease of oxidation of metals, and build electrochemical cells and describe their functioning; * explain the importance for industry and the consequences for the environment of common electrochemical processes. Specific Expectations Understanding Basic Concepts By the end of this course, students will: * name the components of galvanic and electrolytic cells, describe their role, and explain how they function in terms of oxidation and reduction; * explain the chemical reactions involved in corrosion, and describe their similarity to chemical reactions occurring in an electrochemical cell; * identify and explain various techniques used to prevent corrosion of metals (e.g., painting, cathodic protection, galvanization). Developing Skills of Inquiry and Communication By the end of this course, students will: * use appropriate scientific vocabulary to communicate ideas related to electrochemistry (e.g., ionic bonds, oxidation, anode, electrolyte); * use the following laboratory equipment and instruments safely and accurately: voltmeters, electrical sources, connecting wires; * classify, using experimental evidence, metals, acids, bases, salt solutions, and covalent substances as conductors or non-conductors of electricity; * interpret observations from experiments to determine an activity series of some metals; * predict the spontaneity of displacement reactions between metal elements and metal salts based on the activity series, and verify the predictions through experimentation; * construct a galvanic cell, and determine its advantages and disadvantages (e.g., source of energy, portability, rechargeability; chemical spillage, limited voltage); * describe an electrochemical cell in terms of half-cell reactions, location of electrodes, direction of electron flow, and direction of migration of ions; * design and carry out procedures to determine the factors that affect rate of corrosion (e.g., stress, two-metal contacts, surface oxide, nature of electrolyte, nature of metal). Relating Science to Technology, Society, and the Environment By the end of this course, students will: * describe applications of electrochemical cells, such as batteries; * explain how electrolytic processes are used in the refining of metals (e.g., Al, Cu, or Ni), and evaluate the impact of such processes on the environment (e.g., production of acid rain, high-energy consumption); * identify electrochemical processes used in industry (e.g., chrome-plating); * describe the effects of road salt and acid rain on the process of corrosion, and suggest possible ways of counteracting these effects. Chemical Calculations Overall Expectations By the end of this course, students will: * demonstrate an understanding of the mole concept as well as of quantitative relationships in chemical reactions; * use techniques of quantitative analysis in the preparation of standard solutions, and solve problems involving the analysis of quantities in chemical reactions, using both theoretical and experimentally measured quantities; * explain the importance of quantitative chemical relationships in industry and in everyday life. Specific Expectations Understanding Basic Concepts By the end of this course, students will: * define the mole concept and demonstrate an understanding of its usefulness in the analysis of quantities involved in chemical reactions (e.g., explain how the mole concept allows the calculation of the number of atoms, ions, or molecules in a quantity of substance); * explain how the following variables are related: coefficients in balanced chemical equations, quantity in moles, mass, and number of particles; * identify sources of experimental error that would explain a percentage yield other than 100 per cent. Developing Skills of Inquiry and Communication By the end of this course, students will: * use appropriate scientific vocabulary to communicate ide