Ministry of Education 

The Ontario Curriculum, Grades 9 to 12 
English as a Second Language and English Literacy Development (Revised)

2007 

INTRODUCTION

This document replaces The Ontario Curriculum, Grades 9 to 12: English as a Second Language and English Literacy Development, 1999. Beginning in September 2007, all courses in English as a Second Language (ESL) and English Literacy Development (ELD) for Grades 9 to 12 will be based on the expectations outlined in this document. 

SECONDARY SCHOOLS FOR THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY 

The goal of Ontario secondary schools is to support high-quality learning while giving individual students the opportunity to choose programs that suit their skills and interests. The updated Ontario curriculum, in combination with a broader range of learning options outside traditional classroom instruction, will enable students to better customize their high school education and improve their prospects for success in school and in life. 

THE IMPORTANCE OF ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE (ESL) AND ENGLISH LITERACY DEVELOPMENT (ELD) IN THE CURRICULUM 

Ontario secondary schools are now home to students who speak more than 100 different languages, including several Aboriginal languages, many African, Asian, and European languages, or an English-related creole language (such as Caribbean Creole or West African Krio). Ontario's increasing linguistic and cultural diversity provides students with many opportunities for cultural enrichment and for learning that is global in scope. 

At the same time, however, this diversity means that a significant and growing proportion of Ontario students arrive in English-language schools as English language learners – that is, students who are learning the language of instruction at the same time as they are learning the curriculum. The curriculum in English as a Second Language and English Literacy Development for Grades 9 to 12 has been developed to ensure that English language learners have the maximum opportunity to become proficient in English and achieve the high levels of literacy that are expected of all Ontario students. 

THE GOALS OF THE ESL AND ELD CURRICULUM 

The ESL and ELD curriculum is based on the belief that broad proficiency in English is essential to students' success in both their social and academic lives, and to their ability to take their place in society as responsible and productive citizens. The curriculum is designed to provide English language learners with the knowledge and skills they need to achieve these goals. Its aim is to help students become successful English language learners who can: 
• use English to communicate effectively in a variety of social settings; 
• use English to achieve academically in all subject areas; 
• take charge of their own learning, independently and in groups; 
• select and use effective learning strategies; 
• integrate confidently into mainstream courses; 
• use English effectively to advocate for themselves in all areas of their lives; 
• make a successful transition to their chosen postsecondary destination (work, apprenticeship, college, university); 
• function effectively in a society increasingly committed to the use of information technology; 
• use critical-literacy and critical-thinking skills to interpret the world around them; 
• participate fully in the social, economic, political, and cultural life of their communities and of Canada. 

This culminating vision of successful English language learners identifies the language skills and capabilities required for success in Ontario's education system and for full participation in Canadian society. The expectations outlined in the ESL and ELD curriculum are designed to enable students to develop these important skills and capabilities. 

For many English language learners, achievement of the expectations may require them to adopt new ways of learning and new ways of interacting with others. However, growth towards full linguistic and cultural competence in English should not be at the expense of students' own languages and cultures. A major goal of any instructional program for English language learners should be to encourage students to value and maintain their own linguistic and cultural identities so that they can enter the larger society as bilingual and bicultural individuals. Such young people are able to choose language and cultural norms that are appropriate in any given situation or cultural context, and can fully participate in and contribute to our multilingual, multicultural Canadian society. 

The ESL and ELD curriculum expectations are designed to help English language learners develop the skills they need to develop proficiency in everyday English and, most especially, the proficiency in academic English that will allow them to integrate successfully into the mainstream school program. It is important to recognize that while English language learners are in the process of acquiring academic language, their age peers are not standing still in their learning of grade-appropriate language and concepts. In effect, English language learners must catch up with a moving target. Thus, an effective curriculum for English language learners integrates academic language and literacy skills with subject-matter concepts and critical-thinking skills from the very beginning levels of instruction, so that students can gain as much momentum as possible as they progress to full participation in mainstream classes in the various subjects. 

ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS IN ONTARIO 

English language learners are students in provincially funded English-language schools whose first language is a language other than English, or is a variety of English that is significantly different from the variety used for instruction in Ontario's schools, and who may require focused educational support to assist them in attaining proficiency in English. They may be Canadian-born or recently arrived from other countries. They come from diverse backgrounds and school experiences, and have a variety of strengths and needs. 

Newcomers to Ontario. Newcomers to Ontario from countries around the world may arrive at any point between Grade 9 and Grade 12. They may enter school at the beginning of the school year or at any time during the year. The level of support newcomers require to succeed in the classroom will depend on their age, country of origin, and previous educational experience. Some newcomers arrive in Canada with their families as part of a voluntary, planned immigration process. These students have usually received formal education in their countries of origin, and some may have studied English as a foreign language. Some newcomers arrive in Canada under more urgent conditions: for example, fleeing crises in their homelands. These young people have often suffered traumatic experiences, and some may have been separated from family members. They may have been in transit for a few years, and they may or may not have had access to formal education in their homeland or while in transit. 

International or Visa Students. International or visa students are usually of secondary school age, although some may arrive earlier. They pay fees to attend school in Ontario, and often plan to attend a Canadian college or university. These students typically arrive in Canada without their families. They may live with older siblings, with members of the extended family, or under the care of a guardian or home-stay program; older students may live alone. Many have had some instruction in English; nevertheless, they often need considerable support to develop the level of English proficiency required for success in Ontario schools. 

Canadian-Born Students. Most English language learners entering secondary school are newcomers from other countries; however, others are Canadian-born, such as the following: 
• learners returning from a prolonged stay in another country where they received education in a language other than English; 
• learners from Aboriginal communities who speak a first language other than English;
• learners from communities that have maintained distinct cultural and linguistic traditions who choose to enter English-language schools and who have a first language other than English. 

Students With Limited Prior Schooling. Although all countries have schools that offer an excellent education, some English language learners have not had access to such schools for economic, political, ideological, or geographic reasons. The following are some reasons why some English language learners may have had limited opportunities for education: 
• Some countries invest most of their resources in a small percentage of "top" students, who may be selected through examinations for entrance to schools offering high-quality educational programs. Other students, including many of high potential, may not have this kind of opportunity. 
• In some countries only those parents who can afford school fees can ensure a high-quality education for their children. Children in rural areas may have to travel long distances, often on foot, to get to school, and roads may be impassable at some times of the year. In some countries, education has been severely disrupted or even suspended completely during periods of war or civil conflict. In some countries, gender, social class, religion, or ideology may limit access to schooling. 
• Some children may have spent several years in transit before arriving in Canada, and may have had little or no access to schooling during that time. 

PROGRAMS TO SUPPORT ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS 

Secondary school ESL and ELD programs are generally intended to support newcomers. For their first few years in Ontario schools, many English language learners receive support in one of the following two distinct programs designed to meet their language learning needs and/or to help them develop the literacy skills they need in order to continue their education and participate fully in life in Ontario: 
• English as a Second Language (ESL) programs are intended for students whose first language is a language other than English or is a variety of English significantly different from that used for instruction in Ontario schools. Students in these programs have age-appropriate first-language literacy skills and educational backgrounds. 
• English Literacy Development (ELD) programs are intended for students whose first language is a language other than English or is a variety of English significantly different from that used for instruction in Ontario schools. Students in these programs are most often from countries in which their access to education has been limited, so that they have had limited opportunities to develop language and literacy skills in any language. Schooling in their countries of origin has been inconsistent, disrupted, or even completely unavailable throughout the years that these children would otherwise have been in school. As a result, they arrive in Ontario secondary schools with significant gaps in their education. 

ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES IN ESL AND ELD PROGRAMS 

Creating a welcoming and inclusive school environment for English language learners is a whole-school activity requiring the commitment of administrators, teachers, support staff, and other leaders within the school community. The reward for this committed effort is a dynamic and vibrant school environment that celebrates diversity as an asset and enriches the learning experience of all students. 

Students 

Students have many responsibilities with regard to their learning. Students who are able to make the effort required to succeed in school and who are able to apply themselves will soon discover that there is a direct relationship between this effort and their achievement, and will therefore be more motivated to work. There will be some students, however, who will find it more difficult to take responsibility for their learning because of special challenges they face. The attention, patience, and encouragement of teachers can be extremely important to these students' success. However, taking responsibility for their own progress and learning is an important part of education for all students, regardless of their circumstances. 

Mastery of concepts and skills in the ESL and ELD curriculum requires a sincere commitment to work, study, and the development of appropriate skills. Furthermore, students should be encouraged to actively pursue opportunities outside the classroom to extend their proficiency in English and enrich their understanding of the language. Their mastery of English will grow as they engage in real-world activities that involve listening, speaking, reading, and writing in English. Students develop their English literacy skills when they seek out recreational reading materials and multimedia works that relate to their personal interests and to the various subject areas, and when they engage in conversation with parents, peers, and teachers about what they are reading, writing, and thinking in their daily lives. As well, it is important to encourage students to maintain their first-language skills, as their bilingual and bicultural orientation has the potential to be a lifelong asset both to themselves and to Canadian society. 

Parents 

Parents1 have an important role to play in supporting student learning. Studies show that students perform better in school if their parents are involved in their education. By becoming familiar with the curriculum, parents can determine what is being taught in the courses their children are taking and what their children are expected to learn. This awareness will enhance the ability of parents to discuss their children's work with them, to communicate with teachers, and to ask relevant questions about their children's progress. Knowledge of the expectations in the various courses also helps parents to interpret teachers' comments on student progress and to work with teachers to improve student learning. 

Other effective ways in which parents can support their children's learning include attending parent-teacher interviews, participating in parent workshops, becoming involved in school council activities (including becoming a school council member), supporting their children in completing their assignments at home, and encouraging their children to maintain active use of the home language. 

The ESL and ELD curriculum promotes awareness of the wider community. In addition to supporting regular school activities, parents can encourage their children to take an active interest in current affairs and provide them with opportunities to question and reflect on what is happening in the world. 

1. In this document, parent(s) is used to mean parent(s) and guardian(s). 

Teachers 

Teachers and students have complementary responsibilities. Teachers are responsible for developing appropriate instructional strategies to help students achieve the curriculum expectations for their courses, as well as for developing appropriate methods for assessing and evaluating student learning. Teachers bring enthusiasm and varied teaching and assessment approaches to the classroom, addressing individual student needs and ensuring sound learning opportunities for every student. 

Using a variety of instructional, assessment, and evaluation strategies, teachers provide numerous opportunities for students to acquire proficiency in English, as well as subject content knowledge. They provide learners with frequent opportunities to practise and apply new learning and, through regular and varied assessment, give them the specific feedback they need to further develop and refine their skills. By assigning tasks that promote the development of higher-order thinking skills, teachers enable students to become thoughtful and effective communicators in English. In addition, teachers encourage students to think out loud about their own language processes, and support them in developing the language and techniques they need to assess their own learning. Opportunities to relate knowledge and skills in English language learning to wider contexts, both across the curriculum and in the world beyond the school, motivate students to learn and to become lifelong learners. 

ESL/ELD teachers, mainstream subject teachers, teacher-librarians, special education teachers, and guidance teachers must all work together, within the provisions outlined in all secondary school curriculum documents, to support English language learners, to help them integrate successfully into the academic and social life of the school, and to help them learn about postsecondary pathways and destinations. 

Principals 

The principal works in partnership with teachers and parents to ensure that each student has access to the best possible educational experience. To support student learning, principals ensure that the Ontario curriculum is being properly implemented in all classrooms through the use of a variety of instructional approaches. They also ensure that appropriate resources are made available for teachers and students. To enhance teaching and learning in all subjects, including ESL and ELD, principals promote learning teams and work with teachers to facilitate teacher participation in professional-development activities. 

Principals ensure that schools have in place procedures and practices for welcoming English language learners and their families, and that schools present an inclusive and welcoming environment for all students. As well, principals ensure that all subject teachers incorporate appropriate adaptations and strategies into their instruction and assessment to facilitate the success of the English language learners in their classrooms. 

Principals are also responsible for ensuring that every student who has an Individual Education Plan (IEP) is receiving the modifications and/or accommodations described in his or her plan – in other words, for ensuring that the IEP is properly developed, implemented, and monitored. 

Community Partners 

Community partners can be an important resource in students' language development. They can provide support for students with literacy needs, both in the classroom and as living models of how the curriculum relates to life beyond school. Such modelling and mentoring can enrich not only the educational experience of students but also the life of the community. 

Schools and school boards can play a role by coordinating efforts with community partners. They can involve community volunteers in supporting language instruction and in promoting a focus on literacy in and outside the school. Community partners can be included in literacy events held in the school, and school boards can collaborate with leaders of existing community-based literacy programs for youth, including programs offered in public libraries and community centres. Partnerships with local settlement agencies and ethnocultural organizations are also a valuable resource for both educators and English language learners and their families. 

FACTORS IN SUCCESSFUL ENGLISH LANGUAGE ACQUISITION 

Research studies show that it takes five or more years for most English language learners to catch up to age peers in using English for academic purposes, although some will accomplish this earlier, and some will need much longer. Most English language learners are able to function effectively and confidently in everyday language situations within a year or two. For example, they can follow classroom directions and maintain simple conversations about familiar topics and routines. During this time they also acquire a basic vocabulary of high-frequency words and phrases (such as friend, hungry,"Say it again, please."). However, it can take much longer for English language learners to catch up to their age peers in academic language. 

General Factors 

The rate at which an English language learner acquires proficiency in English, adapts to the new environment, and integrates into the mainstream academic program will be influenced by a number of general factors. Factors affecting the successful acquisition of English include the following: 
• The acculturation process. It is acknowledged that most newcomers experience a period of cultural adjustment. Newly arrived students will move through the stages of acculturation at an individual pace. The rate at which individual students experience the acculturation process may vary even among members of the same family. Some students may experience elements of different stages at the same time; some may remain in one stage for an extended period of time or may repeat characteristics associated with an earlier stage if the process has been interrupted. 
• The migration experience. Many newcomer students have arrived in Canada with their families as part of a voluntary, planned immigration process. However, some students have arrived from countries in chaos, have spent time in refugee camps, or have experienced personal trauma caused by natural disaster, political upheaval, or family disruption. 
• The level of development in the first language. English language learners who are at age-appropriate levels of language and literacy development in their own language are more successful in learning English. 
• Prior experience with English. Some newcomers, especially those of secondary school age, have studied English in their own countries. Placement of these students may vary according to their level of proficiency in English. 
• Personality or motivational factors. Some students are more likely to seek out opportunities to use the new language and take the risks involved in experimenting with English. Others may need encouragement and support to do this. The amount and quality of prior schooling. Students who have significant gaps in their schooling have more to catch up on and will need more support over a longer period of time. 
• The presence of learning exceptionalities. English language learners show the full range of learning exceptionalities in the same proportions as other Ontario students. When special education needs have been identified, students are eligible for ESL/ELD services and special education services simultaneously. 

School and Classroom Factors 

A number of school and classroom factors can have a positive influence on English language acquisition. These factors include the following: 
• The classroom environment. A caring environment where teacher and peers support English language learners and value their efforts to communicate is essential. It is also important to validate students' linguistic and cultural backgrounds, encouraging them to strive to become bilingual and bicultural. As well, the selection of classroom resources should reflect the students' backgrounds, ages, interests, and level of proficiency in English. 
• The amount and quality of ESL or ELD support. English language learners need the assistance of ESL or ELD teachers (and of classroom teachers who are aware of and responsive to their needs as language learners) who use approaches and strategies that are tailored to their needs (see the outline of approaches and strategies on pages 38-48). 
• Opportunities for interaction in English. English language learners need frequent opportunities for extended conversation in English with their peers and other members of the larger community. They should be encouraged to become involved in extra-curricular activities within the school community. 
• Supportive language feedback. English language learners need opportunities to produce language and receive feedback in a respectful and helpful way. It is important for teachers to focus on communication first, responding to the content of what the student is trying to say, before rephrasing in order to provide a model for the student. As well, it is helpful to focus on one or two errors at a time rather than trying to "fix" everything. Errors are a normal part of the language learning process. 
• Opportunities to maintain and develop the first language. The student's first language is a critical foundation, not only for language learning but for all learning. Research indicates that students benefit academically, socially, and emotionally when they are encouraged to develop and maintain proficiency in their first language while they are learning English. Language skills and conceptual knowledge are readily transferable from one language to another, provided there are no learning exceptionalities. The first language provides a foundation for developing proficiency in additional languages, serves as a basis for emotional development, and provides a vital link with the student's family and cultural background.
• Emotional responses to the learning situation. Students entering a new linguistic and cultural environment may be intimidated at first. They may also feel lonely, missing friends and family members. Newcomers who have experienced war or other trauma in the country of origin or en route to Canada may progress slowly at first because they are preoccupied with thoughts of the dangers they have come through, and may not yet feel safe in their new environment. 
• Parental involvement. Special efforts are needed in order to reach out to parents whose educational experiences might have been quite different from those of Ontario-born parents. It is also important to remember that newcomer parents are themselves dealing with culture shock, possible language difficulties, and orientation issues at the same time as they are supporting their children's needs at school. 

THE PROGRAM IN ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE AND ENGLISH LITERACY DEVELOPMENT 

OVERVIEW OF THE PROGRAM 

English language learners in any grade may be placed in appropriate ESL or ELD courses. Since many ESL and ELD classes include students aged between fourteen and twenty, the topics and activities must be selected to appeal to a wide range of ages and maturity levels. There are five ESL courses and five ELD courses. The courses are designated according to levels of proficiency in English and literacy development, not by grade. All ESL and ELD courses are open courses. 

Students may substitute up to three ESL or ELD courses for compulsory English credit requirements. The remaining English credit shall be chosen from one of the compulsory English courses offered in Grade 12. Additional ESL or ELD credits may be counted as optional credits for diploma purposes. 

English as a Second Language (ESL) Courses 

These courses are designed for English language learners who have had opportunities to develop language and literacy skills in their own language appropriate to their age or grade level. Most English language learners are in this group. These learners may be entering secondary school from elementary school alongside their English-speaking peers, or they may be entering secondary school in Ontario having recently arrived from other countries. They can read and write in their own language within the expected range for students of their age in their own country. They can build on their existing first-language skills when learning English in an ESL program. 

The five ESL courses are based on levels of proficiency in English. Depending on learners' previous experience with English, students may be placed in ESL Level 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5. For example, a student who has been in full-time education in his or her country of origin but who has never studied English would be placed in ESL Level 1. A student who has been in full-time education in his or her own country and has studied some English might be placed in ESL Level 2 or 3 on the basis of the initial English language assessment. A student who has studied English for several years might be placed in ESL Level 3, 4, or 5 on the basis of the initial English language assessment. A student who has studied English for several years might be placed in ESL Level 3, 4, or 5 on the basis of the initial English language assessment. Students of Grade 9 age whose initial assessment indicates that they are beyond ESL Level 4 (ESLDO) should be placed directly in Grade 9 Applied English (ENG1P) or Grade 9 Academic English (ENG1D).

Chart 1. Courses in English as a Second Language 

Course: ESL Level 1 
Course Type: Open 
Course Code: ESLAO 
Credit Value: 1 

Course: ESL Level 2 
Course Type: Open 
Course Code: ESLBO 
Credit Value: 1 
Prerequisite: ESL Level 1 or equivalent* 

Course: ESL Level 3 
Course Type: Open 
Course Code: ESLCO 
Credit Value: 1 
Prerequisite: ESL Level 2 or equivalent* 

Course: ESL Level 4 
Course Type: Open 
Course Code: ESLDO 
Credit Value: 1 
Prerequisite: ESL Level 3 or equivalent* 

Course: ESL Level 5 
Course Type: Open 
Course Code: ESLEO 
Credit Value: 1 
Prerequisite: ESL Level 4 or equivalent* 

*"Equivalent" may be an equivalent course of study in other provinces in Canada or in other countries, or a proficiency level determined through initial assessment. 

English Literacy Development (ELD) Courses 

These courses are designed for English language learners with limited prior schooling who have not had opportunities to develop age-appropriate literacy skills in any language. These students are from areas of the world where educational opportunities have not been consistently available. Their needs differ in the following two important ways from the needs of their English language learner peers who arrive with age-appropriate schooling: 
• They have significant gaps in their education and therefore have more to catch up on. 
• They need more intensive support for a longer period of time. 

ELD courses provide an accelerated program of literacy development for these students. 

There are five ELD courses based on levels of literacy development and proficiency in English. Depending on learners' previous educational experience, first-language literacy skills, and knowledge of English, students may be placed in ELD Level 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5. For example, a newly arrived student with no prior formal schooling and no first-language literacy skills would be placed in ELD Level 1. A student with some prior schooling and some knowledge of English might be placed in ELD Level 2 or 3. 

Chart 2. Courses in English Literacy Development 
Course: ELD Level 1 
Course Type: Open 
Course Code: ELDAO 
Credit Value: 1 

Course: ELD Level 2 
Course Type: Open 
Course Code: ELDBO
Credit Value: 1 
Prerequisite: ELD Level 1 or equivalent* 

Course: ELD Level 3 
Course Type: Open 
Course Code: ELDCO 
Credit Value: 1 
Prerequisite: ELD Level 2 or equivalent* 

Course: ELD Level 4 
Course Type: Open 
Course Code: ELDDO
Credit Value: 1 
Prerequisite: ELD Level 3 or equivalent* 

Course: ELD Level 5 
Course Type: Open 
Course Code: ELDEO 
Credit Value: 1 
Prerequisite: ELD Level 4 or equivalent* 

*"Equivalent" may be an equivalent course of study in other provinces in Canada or in other countries, or a proficiency level determined through initial assessment. 

THE PROGRAM IN ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE AND ENGLISH LITERACY DEVELOPMENT 

Pathways to English  (chart from page 14 is omitted)

The chart below shows how most English language learners may progress through their ESL and/or ELD courses and into mainstream English courses. Not all students will follow this sequence exactly, and individual students may vary in the rate at which they progress through the levels. 

Half-Credit Courses 

The courses outlined in this document are designed as full-credit courses, but may be delivered as full- or half-credit courses. Half-credit courses, which require a minimum of fifty-five hours of scheduled instructional time, must adhere to the following conditions: 

• The two half-credit courses created from a full course must together contain all of the expectations of the full course. The expectations for the two half-credit courses must be divided in a manner that best enables students to achieve the required knowledge and skills in the allotted time. 

• A course that is a prerequisite for another course may be offered as two half-credit courses, but a student must successfully complete both parts of the course to fulfil the prerequisite. (Students are not required to complete both parts unless the course is a prerequisite for another course they wish to take.) 

• The title of each half-credit course must include the designation Part 1 or Part 2. When a student successfully completes a half-credit course, a half-credit (0.5) will be recorded in the credit-value column of both the report card and the Ontario Student Transcript. 

Boards will ensure that all half-credit courses comply with the conditions described above, and will report all half-credit courses to the ministry annually in the School October Report. 

CURRICULUM EXPECTATIONS 

The expectations identified for each course describe the knowledge and skills that students are expected to develop and demonstrate in their class work, on tests, and in various other activities on which their achievement is assessed and evaluated. 

Two sets of expectations are listed for each strand, or broad curriculum area, of each course – overall expectations and specific expectations. The overall expectations describe in general terms the knowledge and skills that students are expected to demonstrate by the end of each course. The specific expectations describe the expected knowledge and skills in greater detail. The specific expectations are grouped under numbered headings (or "suborganizers"), each of which indicates the overall expectation to which the group of specific expectations corresponds. Each expectation in a group is identified by an "expectation tag" (a subheading) that describes the particular aspect of the overall expectation to which the specific expectation refers. Taken together, the overall expectations and specific expectations represent the mandated curriculum. 

The organization of expectations into strands and subgroups of expectations is not meant to imply that the expectations in any one strand or group are achieved independently of the expectations in the other strands or groups. The groupings are used merely to help teachers focus on particular aspects of knowledge and skills as they plan lessons or learning activities for their students. The concepts, content, and skills identified in the different strands of each course should, wherever appropriate, be integrated in instruction throughout the course. 

The specific expectations reflect the progression in knowledge and skills from level to level through (1) the wording of the expectation itself, (2) the examples that are given in the parentheses in the expectation, and/or (3) the "teacher prompts" that may follow the expectation. The examples and teacher prompts help to clarify the requirements specified in the expectations, and suggest the intended depth and level of complexity of the expectations. They have been developed to model appropriate practice for the various levels, and are meant to serve as illustrations for teachers. Teachers can choose to use the examples and teacher prompts that are appropriate for their classrooms, or they may develop their own approaches that reflect a similar level of complexity. Whatever the specific ways in which the requirements outlined in the expectations are implemented in the classroom, they must, wherever possible, be inclusive and reflect the diversity of the student population and the population of the province. 

STRANDS 

The content in each of the ESL and ELD courses is organized into four interrelated strands, or broad areas of learning: Listening and Speaking, Reading, Writing, and Socio-cultural Competence and Media Literacy. Effective instructional activities blend expectations from the four strands in order to provide English language learners with the kinds of experiences that promote meaningful learning and that help students recognize how language and literacy skills in the four strands overlap and strengthen one another. The program at all levels is designed to develop a range of essential skills in the four interrelated strands, built on a solid foundation of knowledge of the language conventions of standard English and incorporating the use of analytical, critical, and metacognitive thinking skills. Students learn best when they are provided with opportunities to monitor and reflect on their learning, and each strand includes expectations that call for such reflection. 

Listening and Speaking 

The Listening and Speaking strand has three overall expectations, as follows: 

Students will: 

1. demonstrate the ability to understand, interpret, and evaluate spoken English for a variety of purposes; 
2. use speaking skills and strategies to communicate in English for a variety of classroom and social purposes; 
3. use correctly the language structures appropriate for this level to communicate orally in English. 

Oral language development lays the basic foundation for the acquisition of any new language, and paves the way for learning to read and write in that language. Well-developed listening and speaking skills in English are essential both for English language learners' successful social integration at school and in the community and for their development of the language proficiency in academic English that they will need to succeed in all aspects of the mainstream classroom program. 

To develop their oral communication skills, English language learners need extensive opportunities to listen and to talk about a range of subjects, including personal topics, school subjects, and current affairs. ESL and ELD programs should provide many cognitively challenging opportunities for students to engage in listening and speaking activities tied to expectations from all the other course strands. Brainstorming to identify what students already know about the topic of a new text they are about to read, discussing strategies for how they will organize ideas in a writing assignment, presenting and defending ideas or debating current issues, and offering constructive feedback about work produced by their peers are all examples of richly integrated tasks that support the development of English language learners' listening and speaking skills. 

English language learners need to develop listening skills for use in their interactions with others, for comprehension in less interactive formats such as classroom presentations and radio and television broadcasts, and for many other social and school purposes: to listen to directions, instructions, and school announcements in the beginning levels of instruction; to take point-form notes on classroom presentations in the middle course levels; and to provide a summary of a television or radio news report they have heard in the higher-level courses. 

Similarly, English language learners need to build a broad range of speaking skills, both for conversational purposes and for academic purposes such as presenting ideas and information to their classmates. Beginning-level English language learners will need many opportunities to engage in brief conversations on personal topics, progress to speaking tasks such as sharing ideas about books in a literature circle at the intermediate level, and advance to presenting a classroom seminar or participating in a debate in the higher-level courses. 

English language learners need rich and frequent opportunities to interact in the classroom in a purposeful way – for example, through collaborative learning in pairs and small groups that allows them to engage in listening and speaking for authentic purposes. Teachers should be a supportive source of input for English language learners' oral language development, offering instruction and feedback, as well as providing excellent models of the competence a first-language speaker would demonstrate in listening and speaking for both academic and social purposes. Teachers at all course levels should provide focused instruction and modelling of various features of the English grammatical and sound systems. 

In addition, teachers should model the use of English conversational strategies that will facilitate smooth interaction appropriate to a variety of social and academic contexts, as well as the effective use of communication tools such as clarification, circumlocution, and repair to bridge gaps in students' current level of proficiency in English. 

Reading 

The Reading strand has three overall expectations, as follows: 

Students will: 

1. read and demonstrate understanding of a variety of texts for different purposes; 
2. use a variety of reading strategies throughout the reading process to extract meaning from texts; 
3. use a variety of strategies to build vocabulary; 
4. locate and extract relevant information from written and graphic texts for a variety of purposes. 

Adolescents whose first language is English come to the task of reading at the secondary school level with a full repertoire of linguistic resources in English. In contrast, English language learners learning to read in English are at the same time in the process of acquiring English vocabulary and grammar, as well as phonological awareness of the sound system of English. Thus, secondary school English language learners who possess age-appropriate reading skills in their first language still face a number of learning challenges as they approach learning to read in English. These challenges may include differences in sound-symbol relationships between the reader's first language and English, limitations in learned English oral vocabulary, gaps in background knowledge, and lack of familiarity with the structure of English text forms. 

Students in the ELD program with gaps in their prior education may be experiencing their first major foray into reading in any language, and thus may face an additional set of challenges. These might include lack of familiarity with the routines and expectations of the school environment, lack of reading-readiness concepts, and gaps in their general academic and background knowledge that would normally have been filled through childhood school attendance. An effective reading program for English language learners will take all these differences into account, and will provide rich and extensive opportunities for tapping into and building on students' background knowledge, developing vocabulary, modelling and thinking aloud by teachers and students, discussing texts, and participating in group reading and learning activities. 

As English language learners develop their reading skills in English, it is important that they have many opportunities to read a wide variety of texts from diverse cultures and for a variety of purposes. By reading widely, students will develop a richer vocabulary, become more attuned to the conventions of written English in various genres, and increase their understanding of diverse world views. A well-balanced reading program will provide students with opportunities to read to widen their knowledge in all areas of the curriculum, to discover interesting information, for the pleasure of self-discovery, and for sheer enjoyment. Reading experiences that invite students to discover new worlds and to develop their imaginative powers will go a long way towards convincing them that reading can be a rich source of pleasure and knowledge. Such experiences are likely to lead to a love of reading, which is among the most valuable resources students can take with them into adult life. 

Reading is a complex process that involves the application of many strategies before, during, and after reading. Students need to identify which strategies are personally most helpful and how they can use these and other strategies to improve as readers. For example, students might prepare before reading by identifying the purpose of the reading activity and by activating their prior knowledge about the topic of the text and the vocabulary contained in that text. Students may need a teacher's help to make sense of the new English vocabulary and grammatical structures they will encounter in a text. Teachers can also help English language learners build the necessary background knowledge required to understand texts that these students may not have been able to acquire through their own experiences. 

During reading, English language learners may use clues from context or from their understanding of language structures and/or letter-sound relationships to help them determine the meaning of unfamiliar words. They will also use a variety of comprehension strategies such as predicting, questioning, identifying main ideas, and monitoring comprehension to help them understand a text. After reading, students may analyse, synthesize, make connections, evaluate, and use other critical and creative thinking skills to achieve a deeper understanding of the material they have read. For example, students might evaluate an author's perspective or bias in a piece of writing and discuss how that might affect the reader's interpretation. 

To become fluent readers of English, students need to read frequently and develop the range of skills required to read for a variety of different purposes – to follow directions, to get advice, to obtain information, to build vocabulary, to obtain access to subject knowledge, and for personal interest and enjoyment. 

Writing 

The Writing strand has four overall expectations, as follows: 

Students will: 

1. write in a variety of forms for different purposes and audiences; 
2. organize ideas coherently in writing; 
3. use correctly the conventions of written English appropriate for this level, including grammar, usage, spelling, and punctuation; 
4. use the stages of the writing process. 

Current research confirms the similarity in the writing processes of both first- and second-language writers. As English language learners develop control over the language, their writing gradually begins to approximate standard English. The elements that go into writing in any language are essentially similar: selecting a topic; choosing and organizing the ideas to be included; framing the message appropriately for the intended audience; applying the conventions of written language such as grammar, spelling, and word choice; and applying editing, revising, and proofreading strategies to produce a polished piece of writing. 

While the processes of English writing may be essentially similar for both first- and second-language writers, there are some important differences in what the two groups bring to the task. First, English language learners will surely experience some limitations in their expressive abilities in terms of vocabulary, grammar, and idiomatic expressions. In addition, English language learners may not have had the exposure to the various forms and styles of written English that first-language speakers have had. Students in the ELD program will not have had the same range of opportunities to practise and develop writing skills that English language learners with consistent prior schooling have had, and may need extensive exposure to writing-readiness concepts, as well as to instruction about the purpose and structure of various forms of writing. In addition, all students need to be taught ways to avoid plagiarism when writing for reporting and research purposes. Teachers need to be aware of the differences between first- and second-language writers, and provide students with frequent opportunities to gain mastery over English language structure and the organizational patterns used in different types of texts. 

Writing competence develops hand in hand with skills in other areas of English, especially reading. In many ways, the development of writing and reading skills is reciprocal. As students read a variety of texts, they build and develop a command of English vocabulary, become familiar with more complex English grammatical structures, and acquire an understanding of the organizational frameworks found in various genres of English writing. To become good writers of English who are able to communicate ideas with ease and clarity, English language learners need frequent opportunities to write for various purposes and audiences and to master the skills involved in the various stages of the writing process. The more English language learners read and write, the more likely they will be to achieve full mastery in all areas of the mainstream curriculum. 

Socio-cultural Competence and Media Literacy 

The Socio-cultural Competence and Media Literacy strand has four overall expectations, as follows: 

Students will: 

1. use English and non-verbal communication strategies appropriately in a variety of social contexts; 
2. demonstrate an understanding of the rights and responsibilities of Canadian 
citizenship, and of the contributions of diverse groups to Canadian society; 
3. demonstrate knowledge of and adaptation to the Ontario education system; 
4. demonstrate an understanding of, interpret, and create a variety of media works. 

English language learners arrive in Ontario schools from a multitude of cultural and linguistic backgrounds, each with its own norms and conventions for communicating in a range of social situations and contexts. To be fully proficient in any language, speakers of that language must learn to interact appropriately at different levels of formality with peers, teachers, community members, and employers. The ability to understand and use the different language forms and observe the behavioural norms that are appropriate in a wide variety of situations is an important part of socio-cultural competence and is also a critical factor in English language learners' attainment of full proficiency in English. 

Newcomer secondary students also face the twin challenges of learning English and adapting to a new school system, a system that may be very different from the one they were previously accustomed to. English language learners need to learn to navigate the Ontario education system to maximize their potential for success. Through this strand, they will acquire the tools for success in the student-centred Ontario classroom environment by developing learning skills in such areas as teamwork, cooperation, time management, and initiative. English language learners also need to learn strategies for planning for their future, through knowledge of a range of postsecondary pathways and destinations such as further education, apprenticeship training programs, or workforce opportunities. 

Through the expectations in this strand, students will also demonstrate their understanding that the Ontario school system expects all students to treat each other with respect, dignity, and understanding. Students are entitled to receive equitable treatment in Ontario schools, regardless of differences in race, gender, place of origin, ethnic origin, citizenship, religion, sexual orientation, physical ability, or class and family status. Schools will not tolerate abuse, bullying, discrimination, intimidation, hateful words and actions, or any form of physical violence based on any of these differences. Students are encouraged through this strand to develop proactive problem-prevention strategies and peaceful conflict-resolution strategies that will allow them to interact respectfully and appropriately with each other and in the wider community. In addition, students will acquire knowledge about the contributions of the many linguistic and cultural groups that are at the heart of our diverse Canadian society, as well as a knowledge of Canadian geography, history, and civic issues that will empower them to participate fully as Canadian citizens. 

This strand also includes expectations that help students to develop the media-literacy skills needed to understand, critically interpret, and create media texts in English. The plethora of print, screen, and electronic mass media messages directed at adolescents and youth makes the development of media literacy especially important for secondary students. The media-literacy aspect of this strand explores the impact and influence of mass media and popular culture by examining the art and messaging of texts such as films, songs, advertisements, television shows, magazines, newspapers, billboards, photographs, and websites. Because of the significant influence that implicit and overt media messages can have on students, it is important for students to develop the ability to evaluate such messages critically. Understanding how media texts are constructed and aimed at specific audiences enables students to respond to media texts intelligently and responsibly. 

Because media texts tend to use idioms, slang, and Canadian and North American cultural contexts and references with which English language learners may not be familiar, media literacy is highly relevant to a strand that focuses on socio-cultural competence. However, media-literacy expectations also combine well with expectations in Listening and Speaking, Reading, and Writing. 

ADAPTING ESL OR ELD COURSES FOR STUDENTS WHO SPEAK A VARIETY OF ENGLISH 

ESL and ELD courses were designed for students with a language background other than English. These courses may need to be adapted for use with students who speak a variety of English such as those spoken in parts of the Caribbean and Africa. These students have considerable knowledge of English, even if they are newcomers to Canada. Schools should establish protocols for adapting ESL or ELD courses to meet the needs of students who speak different varieties of English. 

English is an international language, and many varieties of English are spoken around the world. Standard English is a variety of English that is used as the language of education, and the language of law and government in English-speaking countries and/or regions, such as Canada, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Jamaica, the United States, Australia, many countries in Africa, and parts of India. Standard English is spoken with many different accents. 

Some varieties of English are very different – not only in pronunciation, or accent, but also in vocabulary and sentence structure – from the English required for success in Ontario schools. For example, while many people in English-speaking Caribbean countries speak standard English, others speak a variety of Caribbean English Creole. These varieties are so different from standard English that many linguistic experts consider them to be languages in their own right. Students from some West African countries may also speak an English-related Creole language. 

An initial assessment of proficiency in English can help identify those students who, although they may be English-speaking, may require instruction in some of the vocabulary and grammatical forms of standard Canadian English in order to succeed in Ontario schools. 

Students learning standard English are not learning "better" English. Their variety of English is a valid form of communication in their linguistic community, and they will need to continue to belong to that community at the same time as they are learning standard English for success in school. As with all English language learners, the role of the school is to encourage students to value and maintain their own linguistic and cultural identities while enabling them to enter the larger society as bilingual and bicultural individuals, able to choose language and cultural norms that are appropriate in a given linguistic situation or cultural context. 

PROCEDURES FOR PLACING ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS 

Secondary schools should establish a specific process for receiving English language learners. All staff members, including administrative staff, should be aware of and understand the process. The placement process is aimed at successfully integrating English language learners in Ontario secondary schools, and has four major components: 
• Reception and orientation: to provide a welcoming and inclusive environment for new students and their families 
• Initial assessment: to determine each student's educational background, level of proficiency in English, and academic achievement 
• Placement: to determine the best program and selection of courses for each student 
• Monitoring: to keep track of each student's progress in second-language acquisition, academic development, and cultural adjustment, and to provide support as needed English language learners may arrive in Ontario schools at any point during the school year. Special efforts should be made to ensure the effective placement and integration of students in classes that are already in progress. 

Reception and Orientation 

Supportive reception and orientation of new students and their families is a critical first step in the successful integration of English language learners into secondary school. This reception process may take place at a centralized school board reception centre or at the individual school site. During initial reception, assessment, and placement, several interviews and counselling sessions may be needed to share background information that will contribute to students' successful integration into the secondary school and to initiate open and positive communication with the home and family. The assistance of interpreters, school settlement workers, student ambassadors, and other community members can be very helpful during this process. 

During the first interview, the interviewer should: 
• obtain background information about the student, including personal history, circumstances of immigration, previous educational experience, education plans, and career aspirations. This information should be made available to the student's teachers; 
• review any educational documents that students may bring to facilitate the granting of equivalent credits for previous secondary education, in accordance with policy directives, and in consultation with resource persons familiar with the education system in the student's home country; 
• if documents are not available, gather information from the student and parents to find out about previous schooling, including the number of years completed; 
• introduce the new student to a student ambassador – preferably one who speaks the newcomer's language – who will help orient the student to the school and its routines; 
• provide essential orientation information to the student and family and establish a relationship that allows orientation to continue during the weeks and months ahead. 

Orientation information may include the following: basic information about the structure of the school day and year; the names and telephone numbers of relevant community organizations and of important contact persons such as the guidance counsellor, the ESL or ELD teacher, the principal, and a bilingual contact person or interpreter; a description of support services available from the district school board; a description of important school norms and routines such as the dress code and emergency procedures; a description of the Ontario school system; and information on the role of parents in Ontario schools. It is helpful to have this information available in printed form so that newcomers are not overwhelmed by the need to assimilate a great deal of information all at once. It is also helpful to provide this information in the languages of the community. 

Initial Assessment 

The initial assessment of English language learners is an opportunity to obtain a clear picture of their educational, cultural, and personal background, their level of achievement in the subjects covered by Ontario's curriculum, their level of proficiency in English, and their linguistic, academic, and other needs, including any exceptionalities. 

All students entering a new school require an accurate assessment of their needs, but the process takes longer when the students are recent arrivals from other countries or are beginning learners of English. The purpose of the initial assessment is to gather further information about each student's educational background and level of proficiency in English in order to select a suitable program. Assessment covers two key areas: proficiency in English and mathematical knowledge and skills. 

Language assessment begins with the reception interview. Where possible, at least part of the assessment may be conducted in the student's first or dominant language to allow a broader view of his or her linguistic and cognitive development. For example, level of performance in reading and writing in English is seldom an indication of the student's level of literacy development. Students who are functioning at or above grade level in their own language may not be able to perform nearly as well in English. At the same time, there is a need to find out how proficient the student is in the language of instruction. With the help of these assessments, schools can make informed decisions about the student's academic and linguistic needs. 

If appropriate resource personnel are available, an assessment of the student's oral and written skills in the first language may assist placement. A student's writing in the first language may provide some useful information, even to teachers who do not read that language, if they use the following questions as guidelines: Does letter or character formation appear to be appropriately developed for the student's age? How long does it take for the student to produce the piece? Does the student check and edit the piece? How simple or complex does the writing appear? 

The assessment of the student's oral skills in English begins with the initial interview. The interview is appropriate as an assessment vehicle because it demonstrates the student's ability to meet the demands of everyday oral communication. The student may also be asked to participate in a conversation, describe or discuss pictures, listen to and retell a story, or explain a diagram or concept from a familiar subject area. The specific course expectations for Listening and Speaking may be used as criteria in assessing student performance and placing students in ESL or ELD courses. 

The most informative tool for assessing reading comprehension in English is an informal reading inventory, which consists of a graduated series of reading passages that assess reading comprehension. Each passage is accompanied by questions designed to focus on specific aspects of reading comprehension, such as understanding specific words and main ideas, finding details, following sequence, relating cause and effect, or making inferences. It may be necessary, however, to adapt some passages that contain culturally unfamiliar concepts. Also, caution is required in interpreting results. Results of a reading assessment in English reflect reading performance in the student's second language, not the student's level of first-language literacy development. The specific course expectations for Reading may be used as criteria in assessing student performance and placing students in ESL or ELD courses. 

If the student is able to participate in the reading assessment, it is appropriate to go on to an assessment of writing in English. Students with limited proficiency in English may respond to a picture by listing what they see. Someone with greater proficiency may construct a more detailed description or write a story. With a more advanced student, it is helpful to obtain writing samples of different kinds, such as a piece of personal writing, a narrative, a letter, a descriptive piece, or some expository writing. In all cases, a choice of topics within the student's experience should be provided. The specific course expectations for Writing may be used as criteria in assessing student performance and placing students in ESL or ELD courses. 

Many English language learners may find it easier to display competence with figures than with the words of a new language. Achievement in mathematics can provide a useful indication of a student's educational background and learning potential. However, since performance in mathematics depends on linguistic comprehension, limitations in the student's understanding of English should be taken into account in administering the assessment. It is also important to consider that elements in the mathematics curriculum may be taught in a different order in other countries. Assessment materials provided in students' first languages can be very helpful. 

The mathematics assessment should begin with items related to The Ontario Curriculum, Grades 1–8: Mathematics, 2005. If a student's performance on these items reveals significant gaps in mathematical knowledge and skills, it may not be advisable to conduct further assessment. In many cases, such gaps are attributable to lack of educational opportunity. Students who have missed some years of schooling may need placement in an accelerated upgrading program for the development of basic mathematical skills in preparation for placement in a Grade 9 mathematics course. Students who are able to demonstrate competence with most of the items on the assessment should then be assessed on expectations from the secondary school mathematics curriculum to determine program placement. 

Placement 

An interview should be arranged with the student and parents to review the assessment information and recommend a program of study. Students should be placed in a program that matches their educational experience and aspirations. In some cases, the choice of school may need to be discussed. The student and parents should be informed that the initial placement is tentative. Schools should monitor and revise the placement over a period of time. It is important to inform the student and parents that they, too, may initiate changes in the program. 

English language learners who require ESL or ELD instruction should be placed in programs designed to meet their learning needs. Students, including beginning-level learners of English, should be placed in at least one mainstream class, to allow them to interact with their English-speaking peers. Most students with the necessary background in mathematics, for example, can participate successfully in mainstream mathematics courses, even if they have only beginning English proficiency. Also, the practical and interactive nature of some courses in the arts, health and physical education, and technological education makes them especially suitable for English language learners. 

Assessment results may indicate that a student will succeed in mainstream classes. Such students may be placed immediately in the courses appropriate to the grade level and desired program of study, although their progress should be monitored to ensure appropriate placement. 

If the assessment indicates that a student may be performing several grades behind his or her peers, this may not be the result of a learning disability. Low levels of first-language literacy skills or academic achievement can often be attributed to external conditions, such as disrupted schooling or limited access to schooling in the country of origin. With proper support, the student can be assisted in catching up with peers. However, it is important to keep in mind that some English language learners – about the same proportion as in the general school population – may have learning exceptionalities that are not related to lack of knowledge of the language of instruction or to gaps in their schooling. These students are discussed in the section "Planning ESL and ELD Programs for Students With Special Education Needs". 

Monitoring 

Schools should monitor the academic progress of each student. Although the initial assessment may provide sufficient information for a tentative placement, it is important to assess each student's progress on an ongoing basis. By keeping track of academic and linguistic development, schools can suggest appropriate changes to a student's program. 

TRANSITION FROM ELEMENTARY TO SECONDARY SCHOOL 

Many English language learners arrive in Grade 9 after several years in an Ontario elementary school, where various models for ESL and ELD support may be in place. Many of these students are still learning English, even though they may not have been receiving direct ESL or ELD support in Grade 8. Such students will benefit from ESL or ELD courses to help them cope with the linguistic demands of the secondary school program. Schools should establish protocols for easing the transition between elementary and secondary school. 

TRANSITION TO MAINSTREAM ENGLISH COURSES 

The transition to mainstream English courses is influenced by a number of variables, particularly the individual student's future educational goals, age, and the level of achievement he or she has attained in ESL or ELD courses. For example: a high-achieving fifteen-year-old student currently in ESL Level 4 who plans to go to university may benefit from completing ESL Level 5 prior to transferring into the Grade 11 English university preparation course (ENG3U); whereas an eighteen-year-old student currently in ESL Level 4 who plans to enter the workforce after graduation may be best served by transferring into the Grade 12 English workplace preparation course (ENG4E). 

Some students may require more or less time than others to achieve the course expectations. Students who show exceptional progress may be able to meet the expectations of two ESL or ELD courses within the time frame for one credit: that is, 110 hours. These students would earn the higher ESL or ELD credit. Others may need to repeat a course or part of a course in order to achieve all the course expectations and earn the credit for the course. Students entering secondary school as beginning learners of English or in the beginning stages of literacy development may need more than four years to complete diploma requirements or to meet postsecondary entrance requirements. 

INTEGRATION OF STUDENTS INTO MAINSTREAM SUBJECT CLASSROOMS 

The successful integration of English language learners into the academic and social life of the school requires all teachers to work together to support them. Although many students become proficient users of English for most day-to-day purposes within two years, students may take seven years or more to catch up to first-language English speakers in their ability to use English for academic purposes. Participation in ESL and/or ELD courses assists English language learners to make rapid progress; however, students who arrive as beginning learners of English during their secondary school years may not have enough time to catch up with their peers by the end of Grade 12. Reading textbooks, participating in academic discussions, or writing essays or examination answers may be much more difficult for these students than for first-language English speakers. Their relatively limited vocabulary may make reading some textbooks difficult, and in some cases, inexperience with complex sentence patterns may make it difficult for them to write as fluently as some of their peers. Most students who have completed their ESL and/or ELD courses will therefore continue to need support from their subject teachers to achieve success. 

English language learners will have the best chance to succeed in classrooms where there is opportunity for extensive oral interaction with English-speaking peers. In evaluating achievement, it is important for teachers to recognize the value of the content and the organization of ideas in students' written work, as well as grammar, spelling, and word choice. In addition, teachers must provide instruction on specific features of English for those students whose written English indicates a need for such assistance. 

English language learners need access to their first language as a tool for learning and thinking, at least until they are sufficiently proficient in the second language to use it for a wide range of academic purposes. The first language is the foundation upon which English proficiency is built. An insistence on "English only" may limit students' cognitive activity to their level of proficiency in their second language. Students' first languages therefore have a place in the classroom alongside English, and students may use their first languages in a variety of ways: for example, by consulting bilingual dictionaries, by making notes or preparing outlines and first drafts in their first language, or by working on specific activities with first-language peers before transferring to English. 

Another way of helping English language learners succeed is to design lessons and activities and choose resources that recognize students' background knowledge and experiences. The subject teacher can also use the wealth of linguistic and cultural diversity in the classroom by encouraging students to share information with each other about their own languages and cultures. In this way, all students are enriched with a greater awareness of language and culture, and all students have a sense of belonging. 

Subject teachers should practise differentiated instruction, incorporating appropriate strategies for instruction and assessment to facilitate the success of the English language learners in their classrooms. These strategies include the following: 
• modification of some or all of the course expectations, based on the student's level of English proficiency 
• use of a variety of instructional strategies (e.g., extensive use of visual cues, graphic organizers, and scaffolding; previewing of textbooks; pre-teaching of key vocabulary; peer tutoring; strategic use of students' first languages) 
• use of a variety of learning resources (e.g., visual material, first-language material, simplified text, bilingual dictionaries, culturally diverse materials, field trips) 
• use of assessment accommodations (e.g., granting of extra time; use of oral interviews and tasks requiring completion of graphic organizers and cloze sentences instead of essay questions and other assessment tasks that depend heavily on proficiency in English) 

When learning expectations in any course are modified for English language learners, (whether or not the students are enrolled in an ESL or ELD course), this must be clearly indicated on the student's report card. 

For further information on supporting students who are English language learners, refer to the resource guide Many Roots, Many Voices: Supporting English Language Learners in Every Classroom (Ministry of Education, Ontario, 2005). 

PROGRAM DELIVERY 

There is flexibility in the delivery of ESL and ELD programs and the ways in which English language learners can be given support. 

Delivery Models 

Depending on local circumstances (i.e., distribution and number of English language learners within a particular district school board, size of school board), one or more of the following ESL and ELD program delivery models may be appropriate. 

Local School Model 
• The number of students is sufficient to sustain a full-service program for English language learners. 
• The school contains an ESL and ELD department with qualified ESL and ELD teachers. 
• The school offers a range of ESL and ELD credit courses. 
• The school offers a range of other credit courses adapted to the needs of English language learners (e.g., geography, history, science). 

Congregated School Model 
• The number of students in local schools is not sufficient to sustain a full-service program for English language learners; learners are congregated in a magnet school, which serves students from the surrounding geographical area. 
• The school contains an ESL and ELD department with qualified ESL and ELD teachers. 
• The school offers a range of ESL and ELD credit courses. 
• The school offers a range of other credit courses adapted to the needs of English language learners (e.g., geography, history, science, Civics, Career Studies). 

Resource Support Model 
• The number of students within a particular school board, geographical area, or individual school is not sufficient to sustain ESL or ELD credit courses. 
• The school provides a qualified ESL and ELD teacher to offer regularly scheduled individual assistance on a resource basis. 
• ESL and ELD professional resource support (provided by a qualified ESL and ELD teacher, consultant, coordinator) is available to classroom teachers. 

Types of Support 

Depending on the needs of individual students, one or more of the following types of support may be provided. 

Intensive Support 

Intensive support is suitable for English language learners who are in the early stages of learning English and/or who have had limited education. The timetable of each of these students includes an ESL or ELD course, supplemented, where numbers permit, with special sections of other subjects adapted to meet the needs of English language learners. In addition, these students must be integrated into at least one mainstream course to provide balance in the program and opportunities for interaction with English-speaking peers. 

Students who arrive with little or no previous schooling need extra support to acquire basic literacy skills and academic concepts. In addition to ELD support, first-language assistance may also be provided, where resources are available, by teachers, trained and supervised tutors, or volunteers. In such situations, skills and knowledge acquired through the first language can be transferred into English and can help promote the acquisition of English. 

Partial Support 

Partial support is suitable for English language learners who have acquired some basic skills in using English and a foundation level of literacy. Such students take ESL or ELD courses at the appropriate level and, at the same time, take an increasing number of mainstream courses in other compulsory or optional subjects, at the appropriate grade levels that best suit their language needs and educational and career goals. 

Tutorial Support 

English language learners who are enrolled in a full program of mainstream courses may receive tutorial support from an ESL and ELD resource teacher, subject teachers, and peer tutors. This type of support is suitable for English language learners at all levels of English language proficiency. 

Note: English language learners should "graduate" from ESL or ELD programs when they have attained the level of proficiency required to learn effectively in English. Although a student may leave formal ESL or ELD classes and become completely integrated into the mainstream program within two or three years, the student's progress should continue to be monitored until he or she has attained a level of proficiency in English similar to that of English-speaking peers. 

ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION OF STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT 

BASIC CONSIDERATIONS 

The primary purpose of assessment and evaluation is to improve student learning. Information gathered through assessment helps teachers to determine students' strengths and weaknesses in their achievement of the curriculum expectations in each course. This information also serves to guide teachers in adapting curriculum and instructional approaches to students' needs and in assessing the overall effectiveness of programs and classroom practices. 

Assessment is the process of gathering information from a variety of sources (including assignments, demonstrations, projects, performances, and tests) that accurately reflects how well a student is achieving the curriculum expectations in a subject. As part of assessment, teachers provide students with descriptive feedback that guides their efforts towards improvement. Evaluation refers to the process of judging the quality of student work on the basis of established criteria, and assigning a value to represent that quality. 

Assessment and evaluation will be based on the provincial curriculum expectations and the achievement levels outlined in this document. 

ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION OF STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT 

In order to ensure that assessment and evaluation are valid and reliable, and that they lead to the improvement of student learning, teachers must use assessment and evaluation strategies that: 
• address both what students learn and how well they learn; 
• are based both on the categories of knowledge and skills and on the achievement level descriptions given in the achievement chart on pages 36–37; 
• are varied in nature, administered over a period of time, and designed to provide opportunities for students to demonstrate the full range of their learning; 
• are appropriate for the learning activities used, the purposes of instruction, and the needs and experiences of the students; 
• are fair to all students; 
• accommodate the needs of students with special education needs, consistent with the strategies outlined in their Individual Education Plan; 
• accommodate the needs of students who are learning the language of instruction; 
• ensure that each student is given clear directions for improvement; 
• promote students' ability to assess their own learning and to set specific goals; 
• include the use of samples of students' work that provide evidence of their achievement; 
• are communicated clearly to students and parents at the beginning of the course or the school term and at other appropriate points throughout the school year. 

All curriculum expectations must be accounted for in instruction, but evaluation focuses on students' achievement of the overall expectations. A student's achievement of the overall expectations is evaluated on the basis of his or her achievement of related specific expectations. The overall expectations are broad in nature, and the specific expectations define the particular content or scope of the knowledge and skills referred to in the overall expectations. Teachers will use their professional judgement to determine which specific expectations should be used to evaluate achievement of the overall expectations, and which ones will be covered in instruction and assessment (e.g., through direct observation) but not necessarily evaluated. 

The characteristics given in the achievement chart (see pages 36–37) for level 3 represent the "provincial standard" for achievement of the expectations in a course. A complete picture of overall achievement at level 3 in a course in English as a Second Language or English Literacy Development can be constructed by reading from top to bottom in the shaded column of the achievement chart, headed "70–79% (Level 3)". Parents of students achieving at level 3 can be confident that their children will be prepared for work in subsequent courses. 

Level 1 identifies achievement that falls much below the provincial standard, while still reflecting a passing grade. Level 2 identifies achievement that approaches the standard. Level 4 identifies achievement that surpasses the standard. It should be noted that achievement at level 4 does not mean that the student has achieved expectations beyond those specified for a particular course. It indicates that the student has achieved all or almost all of the expectations for that course, and that he or she demonstrates the ability to use the specified knowledge and skills in more sophisticated ways than a student achieving at level 3. 

The Ministry of Education provides teachers with material such as exemplars that will assist them in improving their assessment methods and strategies and, hence, their assessment of student achievement. Exemplars include samples of student work that illustrate achievement at each of the four levels. (Adaptations can be made within the exemplar documents to align them with the revised curriculum.) 

THE ACHIEVEMENT CHART FOR ESL AND ELD 

The achievement chart that follows identifies four categories of knowledge and skills in English as a Second Language and English Literacy Development. The achievement chart is a standard province-wide guide to be used by teachers. It enables teachers to make judgements about student work that are based on clear performance standards and on a body of evidence collected over time. 

The purpose of the achievement chart is to: 
• provide a common framework that encompasses all curriculum expectations for all courses outlined in this document; 
• guide the development of high-quality assessment tasks and tools (including rubrics); 
• help teachers to plan instruction for learning; 
• assist teachers in providing meaningful feedback to students; 
• provide various categories and criteria with which to assess and evaluate students' learning. 

Categories of Knowledge and Skills. The categories, defined by clear criteria, represent four broad areas of knowledge and skills within which the subject expectations for any given course are organized. The four categories should be considered as interrelated, reflecting the wholeness and interconnectedness of learning.

The categories of knowledge and skills are described as follows:
Knowledge and Understanding. Subject-specific content acquired in each grade (knowledge) and the comprehension of its meaning and significance (understanding).

Thinking. The use of critical and creative thinking skills and/or processes.

Communication. The conveying of meaning through various forms.

Application. The use of knowledge and skills to make connections within and between various contexts.

Teachers will ensure that student work is assessed and/or evaluated in a balanced manner with respect to the four categories, and that achievement of particular expectations is considered within the appropriate categories. 

Criteria. Within each category in the achievement chart, criteria are provided that are subsets of the knowledge and skills that define each category. The criteria identify the aspects of student performance that are assessed and/or evaluated, and serve as guides to what to look for. 

Descriptors. A "descriptor" indicates the characteristic of the student's performance, with respect to a particular criterion, on which assessment or evaluation is focused. In the achievement chart, effectiveness is the descriptor used for each criterion in the Thinking, Communication, and Application categories. What constitutes effectiveness in any given performance task will vary with the particular criterion being considered. Assessment of effectiveness may therefore focus on a quality such as appropriateness, clarity, accuracy, precision, logic, relevance, significance, fluency, flexibility, depth, or breadth, as appropriate for the particular criterion. For example, in the Thinking category, assessment of effectiveness might focus on the degree of relevance or depth apparent in an analysis; in the Communication category, on clarity of expression or logical organization of information and ideas; or in the Application category, on appropriateness or breadth in the making of connections. Similarly, in the Knowledge and Understanding category, assessment of knowledge might focus on accuracy, and assessment of understanding might focus on the depth of an explanation. Descriptors help teachers to focus their assessment and evaluation on specific knowledge and skills for each category and criterion, and help students to better understand exactly what is being assessed and evaluated. 

Qualifiers. A specific "qualifier" is used to define each of the four levels of achievement – that is, limited for level 1, some for level 2, considerable for level 3, and a high degree or thorough for level 4. A qualifier is used along with a descriptor to produce a description of performance at a particular level. For example, the description of a student's performance at level 3 with respect to the first criterion in the Thinking category would be: "the student uses planning skills with considerable effectiveness". 

The descriptions of the levels of achievement given in the chart should be used to identify the level at which the student has achieved the expectations. In all of their courses, students should be given numerous and varied opportunities to demonstrate the full extent of their achievement of the curriculum expectations across all four categories of knowledge and skills. 

EVALUATION AND REPORTING OF STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT 

Student achievement must be communicated formally to students and parents by means of the Provincial Report Card, Grades 9–12. The report card provides a record of the student's achievement of the curriculum expectations in every course, at particular points in the school year or semester, in the form of a percentage grade. The percentage grade represents the quality of the student's overall achievement of the expectations for the course and reflects the corresponding level of achievement as described in the achievement chart for the discipline. 

A final grade is recorded for every course, and a credit is granted and recorded for every course in which the student's grade is 50 per cent or higher. The final grade for each course in Grades 9 to 12 will be determined as follows: 
• Seventy per cent of the grade will be based on evaluations conducted throughout the course. This portion of the grade should reflect the student's most consistent level of achievement throughout the course, although special consideration should be given to more recent evidence of achievement. 
• Thirty per cent of the grade will be based on a final evaluation in the form of one or a combination of the following: an examination, a performance, an essay, or another method of evaluation suitable to the course content and expectations. The final evaluation should be administered at or towards the end of the course.

REPORTING ON DEMONSTRATED LEARNING SKILLS 

The report card provides a record of the learning skills demonstrated by the student in every course, in the following five categories: Works Independently, Teamwork, Organization, Work Habits, and Initiative. The learning skills are evaluated using a four-point scale (E-Excellent, G-Good, S-Satisfactory, N-Needs Improvement). The separate evaluation and reporting of the learning skills in these five areas reflect their critical role in students' achievement of the curriculum expectations. To the extent possible, the evaluation of learning skills, apart from any that may be included as part of a curriculum expectation in a course, should not be considered in the determination of percentage grades. 

ACHIEVEMENT CHART – ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE AND ENGLISH LITERACY DEVELOPMENT, GRADES 9–12 
Categorie: Knowledge and Understanding – Subject-specific content acquired in each course (knowledge), and the comprehension of its meaning and significance (understanding) 
The student: 
• Knowledge of content (e.g., vocabulary, grammatical structures, punctuation, terminology, forms of text and media) 
50-59% (Level 1) demonstrates limited knowledge of content 
60-69% (Level 2) demonstrates some knowledge of content 
70-79% (Level 3) demonstrates considerable knowledge of content 
80-100% (Level 4) demonstrates thorough knowledge of content 

• Understanding of content (e.g., information and ideas, themes in novels and short stories, literary devices, language variety) 
50-59% (Level 1) demonstrates limited understanding of content 
60-69% (Level 2) demonstrates some understanding of content 
70-79% (Level 3) demonstrates considerable understanding of content 
80-100% (Level 4) demonstrates thorough understanding of content 

Categorie: Thinking – The use of critical and creative thinking skills and/or processes 
The student: 
• Use of planning skills (e.g., focusing an inquiry, gathering information, organizing a project) 
50-59% (Level 1) uses planning skills with limited effectiveness 
60-69% (Level 2) uses planning skills with some effectiveness 
70-79% (Level 3) uses planning skills with considerable effectiveness 
80-100% (Level 4) uses planning skills with a high degree of effectiveness
 
• Use of processing skills (e.g., selecting, analysing, generating, integrating, synthesizing, evaluating, forming conclusions) 
50-59% (Level 1) uses processing skills with limited effectiveness 
60-69% (Level 2) uses processing skills with some effectiveness 
70-79% (Level 3) uses processing skills with considerable effectiveness 
80-100% (Level 4) uses processing skills with a high degree of effectiveness 

• Use of critical/creative thinking processes (e.g., reading process, writing process, oral discourse, research) 
50-59% (Level 1) uses critical/creative thinking processes with limited effectiveness 
60-69% (Level 2) uses critical/creative thinking processes with some effectiveness 
70-79% (Level 3) uses critical/creative thinking processes with considerable effectiveness 
80-100% (Level 4) uses critical/creative thinking processes with a high degree of effectiveness 

Categorie: Communication – The conveying of meaning through various forms 
The student: 
• Expression and organization of ideas and information in oral and visual forms (e.g., presentations, dialogues, discussions, role playing, debates, graphic texts, media works) and written forms (e.g., journals, notes, narratives, reports, résumés, stories, poems) 
50-59% (Level 1) expresses and organizes ideas and information with limited effectiveness 
60-69% (Level 2) expresses and organizes ideas and information with some effectiveness 
70-79% (Level 3) expresses and organizes ideas and information with considerable effectiveness 
80-100% (Level 4) expresses and organizes ideas and information with a high degree of effectiveness 

• Communication for different audiences and purposes in oral, visual, and written forms (e.g., use of English in socially and culturally appropriate ways) 
50-59% (Level 1) communicates for different audiences and purposes with limited effectiveness 
60-69% (Level 2) communicates for different audiences and purposes with some effectiveness 
70-79% (Level 3) communicates for different audiences and purposes with considerable effectiveness 
80-100% (Level 4) communicates for different audiences and purposes with a high degree of effectiveness 

• Use of conventions (e.g., grammatical structures, spelling, punctuation, style, usage), vocabulary, and terminology of the discipline in oral, visual, and written forms 
50-59% (Level 1) uses conventions, vocabulary, and terminology of the discipline with limited effectiveness 
60-69% (Level 2) uses conventions, vocabulary, and terminology of the discipline with some effectiveness 
70-79% (Level 3) uses conventions, vocabulary, and terminology of the discipline with considerable effectiveness 
80-100% (Level 4) uses conventions, vocabulary, and terminology of the discipline with a high degree of effectiveness 

Categorie: Application – The use of knowledge and skills to make connections within and between various contexts 
The student: 
• Application of knowledge and skills (e.g., language knowledge, language-learning strategies, reading strategies, vocabulary-building strategies) in familiar contexts 
50-59% (Level 1) applies knowledge and skills in familiar contexts with limited effectiveness 
60-69% (Level 2) applies knowledge and skills in familiar contexts with some effectiveness 
70-79% (Level 3) applies knowledge and skills in familiar contexts with considerable effectiveness 
80-100% (Level 4) applies knowledge and skills in familiar contexts with a high degree of effectiveness 

• Transfer of knowledge and skills (e.g., language knowledge, language-learning strategies, reading strategies, vocabulary-building strategies) to new contexts 
50-59% (Level 1) transfers knowledge and skills to new contexts with limited effectiveness 
60-69% (Level 2) transfers knowledge and skills to new contexts with some effectiveness 
70-79% (Level 3) transfers knowledge and skills to new contexts with considerable effectiveness 
80-100% (Level 4) transfers knowledge and skills to new contexts with a high degree of effectiveness 

• Making connections within and between various contexts (e.g., between the language and the social and cultural environment, including the school; between learning English and becoming aware of citizen responsibilities, developing personal and career goals, and understanding cultural references in literature) 
50-59% (Level 1) makes connections within and between various contexts with limited effectiveness 
60-69% (Level 2) makes connections within and between various contexts with some effectiveness 
70-79% (Level 3) makes connections within and between various contexts with considerable effectiveness 
80-100% (Level 4) makes connections within and between various contexts with a high degree of effectiveness 

Note: A student whose achievement is below 50% at the end of a course will not obtain a credit for the course. 

SOME CONSIDERATIONS FOR PROGRAM PLANNING IN ESL AND ELD 

INSTRUCTIONAL APPROACHES AND TEACHING STRATEGIES 

Students in ESL and ELD courses will benefit from a content-based, thematic approach to lesson planning and delivery. All teachers should integrate language and content instruction so that students can develop academic knowledge and skills in specific content areas at the same time as they develop their English language skills. As well, teachers should ensure that the teaching of English grammatical structures is integrated with context rather than being taught or practised in isolation. For example, students learning about regions of Canada may be involved in making a bar graph to compare annual precipitation in different regions. The cognitive activity consists of finding the information and recording it in graphic form. The language activity consists of describing the graph, orally and in writing, using newly learned vocabulary related to the subject matter. In addition, students will gain practice in using impersonal expressions such as it rains, it snows, and there is/there are. Students could then compare the annual precipitation in different regions of Canada and the world, using quantitative expressions such as twice as much, half as much, five times more, and fifty per cent less. The lesson could then continue with a description of the water cycle, and students might talk and write about a diagram of the cycle, using connectors such as then, next, after that, and finally, while following the rules for subject-verb agreement and comparative forms of adjectives. 

Since language activities in ESL and ELD courses can include content from various subject areas, ESL and ELD teachers need to be aware of the expectations in other subject areas so that they can design relevant units of work for their students. In addition, subject teachers should pay attention to the uses and functions of language in their respective disciplines, in order to help all students, and most especially English language learners, to acquire the specialized vocabulary and language skills needed for success in particular subjects. 

Special sections of other subjects adapted for English language learners should include the expectations of the mainstream course while focusing on general literacy development and the language conventions of the subject itself. This approach is most suitable for courses that require a great deal of background knowledge and/or experience that recently arrived students may not have, and for courses that require a high level of proficiency in English. For example, in science and technological education courses, students need practice in using the passive voice to write laboratory reports or describe processes. In mathematics courses, students need to understand and use expressions for comparing quantity, speed, and size, and words and phrases that indicate specific mathematical operations. In history, students need to become familiar with a wide range of tenses, words, and phrases that indicate chronological order and causal relationships among ideas and events. 

All teachers should remember that English language learners need frequent opportunities to produce language in both written and oral formats. Students need to have plentiful opportunities to communicate with teachers and classmates through a range of interactive activities such as instructional conversations, cooperative group work, jigsaw activities, literature circles, writing conferences, peer tutoring, and community outreach tasks. Students also need to receive feedback in a respectful and helpful manner. English language learners need to be given sufficient wait-time to formulate their thoughts in a second language before they are expected to answer questions or contribute ideas in class. Teachers should focus on communication first, responding to the content of what the student is trying to communicate, before rephrasing in order to provide a model for the student. Focusing on only one or two errors at a time, in both oral and written work, will yield the most enduring results for English language learners. It is important to remember that making errors is a normal and useful part of the language learning process, allowing students to make and test hypotheses about the English language and to apply knowledge and strategies from their first language and prior experiences. 

More detailed descriptions of effective teaching strategies can be found below. 

Anticipation Guide. The anticipation guide is a strategy used to activate students' prior knowledge by asking them to identify their existing opinions and attitudes before reading a text. Prior to reading a text, students are asked to examine and respond to a series of teacher-generated statements that may reflect their pre-reading beliefs and knowledge about a topic. After reading the text, the students revisit the statements to explain how their opinions may have changed as a result of their reading. The anticipation guide also provides an excellent springboard for discussion of students' opinions and beliefs. Reading selections that may challenge students' beliefs and opinions on science and technology, the environment, history, and current affairs all provide appropriate vehicles for the use of the anticipation guide. 

Bilingual Books and Labels. Bilingual books allow students to use their first-language knowledge to help them make sense of English text. The use of bilingual books in the classroom affirms and celebrates students' home languages and cultures, and sends a clear, positive message about the rich contribution of multilingualism to Canadian society. A wide variety of bilingual books is available commercially. In addition, students can create their own bilingual materials using their own stories or by gluing their translations into published English books already available in the classroom. 

Teachers can also provide multilingual word lists, dictionaries, and glossaries to students, often using students' own contributions. Themed bulletin-board displays can highlight vocabulary in many languages (e.g., mathematical terms, or ways to say hello, offer praise, or say thank-you in a multitude of languages). 

Cloze Procedure. The cloze procedure is a "fill-in-the-blanks" technique used to assess reading comprehension and to teach new vocabulary. In the classic cloze procedure, students read a passage from which every seventh word has been deleted and fill in the blanks to demonstrate their overall comprehension of the passage. However, the cloze procedure can be applied selectively to any words in a passage, to adapt the assessment to the student's language level, and to concentrate on specific vocabulary items or grammatical structures, such as content-specific vocabulary, prepositions, or verb tenses. A word bank can also be supplied with a cloze passage to provide additional support for students. 

In addition to being used for individual student work, a cloze passage can be presented as a whole-class or group activity, with the teacher reviewing the text on a chart or overhead transparency. A cloze activity can also be done in pairs or small groups using a pocket chart or large sticky notes on chart paper. 

Other cloze variations include the oral cloze, in which students learn to predict what word is to come by using structural and context clues, and the jigsaw cloze, in which several students each receive different words deleted from the same passage and work together to recreate the entire text. 

Cooperative Learning. Cooperative-learning techniques allow students to work together as a team to accomplish a common learning goal. A cooperative-learning group may work together to complete a research project, prepare a media broadcast, or publish a newsletter. 

In cooperative group activities, group members each take on a specific task they are responsible for, such as gathering materials, taking notes, or ensuring that the group keeps to its timelines. While participating in the cooperative-learning activity, students have numerous opportunities to practise the language necessary for the smooth functioning of the group: for example, how to make suggestions, express opinions, encourage others, and disagree politely. 

In addition to the final product produced by the group, an important aspect of the cooperative-learning process is having each group member examine how the group functioned in its task and evaluate his or her own contribution to the group process. Discussions, journal entries, and self-evaluation checklists are some ways in which students can reflect on the group work process and their part in it. 

Dictogloss. Dictogloss is an activity in which students recreate a text read aloud in class. This strategy supports English language learners in listening to and recalling good English language models, while providing them with opportunities to collaborate and negotiate with their peers.

In the dictogloss strategy, the teacher first chooses a text and reads it aloud to the class at least twice. Teachers can make use of a variety of texts for a dictogloss activity: literature excerpts, content-area paragraphs, news items, narrative descriptions, and even technical procedures. After hearing the passage read aloud, students work in small groups to write down key words and phrases, and then try to reconstruct the text. This is followed by group editing and proofreading, then comparison of the texts generated by various groups. The activity culminates with a whole-class comparison of the reconstructed texts with the original text. The goal of dictogloss is not to produce a text that is identical to the original but to create one that is well worded and has the same information as the original. 

Free Voluntary Reading. Many educators believe that one of the most important strategies they can employ with second-language learners is free voluntary reading (sometimes referred to as sustained silent reading). This strategy is grounded in the idea that reading is one of the most significant activities we can engage in at school. Free voluntary reading provides students with regular, sustained periods of time in which to read materials of their own choice. The focus of free voluntary reading is on improving students' reading skills while helping them to find pleasure in independent reading. 

Free voluntary reading should occur at frequent, regularly scheduled times, with everyone in the class taking part (including the teacher, because the modelling of reading for enjoyment is an important aspect of the activity). Students select their own reading material from books, magazines, manuals, newspapers, or graphic novels brought from home or found at school. Teachers of English language learners should stock their classroom libraries with a selection of reading materials at different levels, including wordless and picture books, catalogues, brochures, flyers, and materials adapted for English language learners. Students can keep brief logs of the items read to allow students, teachers, and parents to track reading preferences. Time for sharing and recommending books can also become part of a free voluntary reading program. 

Graphic Organizers. The use of visual supports to increase English language learners' understanding of texts is an especially powerful teaching strategy. Graphic organizers, often also referred to as key visuals, allow students to understand and represent relationships visually rather than just with language, providing helpful redundancy in making meaning from the text. Graphic organizers can be used to record, organize, analyse, and synthesize information and ideas. Examples of common graphic organizers include the following: timeline, cycle diagram, T-chart, Venn diagram, story map, flow chart, and problem-solution outline. 

The use of a graphic organizer is extremely helpful when carried out initially as a class or group brainstorming activity. The graphic organizer provides a way of collecting and visually presenting information about a topic that will make it more comprehensible for English language learners. 

When using different graphic organizers, teachers should point out and model for students how particular graphic organizers are especially suited to various types of text organization. For example, the T-chart provides an ideal framework for visually representing comparison and contrast, while the flow chart is well suited to illustrating cause-and-effect relationships. 

Guided Reading. Guided reading is a strategy that provides the scaffolding necessary for English language learners to tackle a challenging text. In guided reading, the teacher meets with a group of students who are all reading at the same level. The teacher guides the students through the text with a series of structured activities for use before, during, and after reading the text. Pre-reading activities can include brainstorming, making predictions about the text, or posing questions to be answered from the text. Students then read/reread the text, using a combination of silent, pair, and group reading. During reading of the text, the teacher can provide mini-lessons to individual students on a particular grammatical structure, vocabulary item, or content question related to the text. The individual coaching that takes place in guided reading allows the teacher to focus on the needs of individual students in developing reading skills and strategies. After reading, the teacher structures response tasks to match the reading proficiency level of the group. For example, students can revisit the predictions made before reading the text; identify and describe characters; compile a chart of adjectives to describe characters' feelings at various points in a story; or compare the theme of the story with that of another the group has read. 

Guided Writing. In guided writing, teachers provide direct instruction on aspects of the writing process, as well as supplying direct supports for English language learners writing in English. These supports may include furnishing sentence starters or words to include in writing, providing a paragraph or essay outline to help students structure their writing, or presenting models of successful writing in various genres or forms. 

During a guided-writing activity, the teacher first provides pre-writing activities, such as a group brainstorm on what should be included in a piece of writing. The teacher then takes students through the process of producing a piece of writing by first modelling the process in a think-aloud and then perhaps creating a shared piece of writing with the whole class. Students then engage in their individual writing process, while the teacher may provide focused mini-lessons to small groups or individuals who are having difficulty with particular aspects of the writing. During the guided-writing process, the teacher will also provide opportunities for students to engage in peer editing, self-editing, and revision of their writing. 

Information-Gap Communication Games. In these activities, often done in pairs, students share information with each other in order to solve a problem or arrive at a decision. In information-gap activities, students exchange new information, rather than responding to questions in class about material they have already covered. 

Information-gap activities can focus on content concepts, vocabulary items, or grammatical structures currently being studied by the class. For example, in pairs, students can construct a timeline of events leading up to Canadian Confederation, with one-half of the historical events randomly assigned to each student. It is essential that partners do not show their information to each other. Instead, they must use their oral English communication skills to convey information to their partner in order to reconstruct the entire timeline. These games are sometimes called barrier games, because student pairs may use a physical barrier such as a file folder to hide their information from each other. 

Further examples of information-gap games include the following: one student orders a series of pictures on a grid, and communicates orally to a partner how to order the same set of pictures without the partner being able to see the original order; or one student, using a map, gives directions to a partner about how to find various points of interest in their city or town that are not marked on the partner's map. 

Jigsaw. Jigsaw is a cooperative group activity in which one segment of a learning task is assigned to each member of a small group (the "home" group). All home group members then work to become an "expert" in their aspect of the task in order to teach the other group members. Jigsaw activities push all students to take equal responsibility for the group's learning goals. Jigsaw activities can be done in both listening and reading formats. 

In a jigsaw reading activity, each student becomes a member of an "expert" group, which reads a certain section of a text. Experts then return to their home groups to share information and thus build a complete picture of the entire text. Each expert must ensure that all members of the home group understand all the information. In a jigsaw listening activity, each expert listens to a different oral excerpt of information. The home group then compiles the components into an overall report, such as a description of the habitats of various Canadian animals, or a brief overview of various First Nation peoples across Canada. 

Journal Writing. Journal writing is a technique that encourages students to produce copious amounts of writing while also giving them the opportunity to reflect on their experiences and learning. Journal entries can be personal and private responses to students' own experiences and thoughts, or they can be shared with a teacher or journal buddy, creating a flowing, written dialogue between two partners. Another type of journal response is the "in-role" journal, in which students maintain a journal in the voice of a character from a story or novel and convey the character's reactions and feelings as the story unfolds. 

Prompts for student journal writing can be drawn from literature being studied, classroom topics and current issues, events in the lives of students, or questions or open-ended statements presented by the teacher. When responding to student journal entries, the teacher should focus on the content rather than any errors in the writing. A journal is not the place for correcting students' grammar mistakes. Teacher responses should provide good written English-language models, sensitive prompts for more writing, and overall encouragement for the journal-writing process. 

English language learners at the beginning stages of acquiring English should be encouraged to maintain a journal in their first language. As English proficiency develops, students will feel more comfortable moving to a dual-language format and, finally, to keeping an English-only journal. 

K-W-L. K-W-L, which stands for Know, Want to Know, Learned, is a strategy that helps students build background knowledge and plan for further learning and research. The K-W-L strategy gives teachers a picture of the class level of background knowledge on a particular topic so that gaps can be addressed. It also helps students prepare to learn about the topic or theme. 

To complete a K-W-L chart, the teacher asks students what they think they already know about a topic and fills in the K column with their responses. Then the teacher prompts the students to state what they would like to know about the topic, and adds these details to the W (middle) column. At the end of the lesson or unit, the students review what they have learned. This summation will complete the L (final) column of the chart. 

In order to activate students' background knowledge and stimulate their curiosity, teachers can supply pictures, maps, models, and objects related to the topic to be studied. When the teacher initiates the K-W-L chart, students will be eager to offer what they know and to delve further into the topic as their interest is provoked by the prompts the teacher has supplied. 

Language-Experience Approach. In this instructional strategy, students collectively compose a written text based on an experience they have had. An excellent method for use with beginning readers, the language-experience approach allows students to see the connections between their actual experiences and the spoken and written language, while reading texts that are immediately meaningful to them. 

Students first participate in an experience such as a school tour, art lesson, science experiment, or field trip. The teacher then engages the class in a discussion of the experience and records the students' dictated words and sentences about the experience to create a short text or story on chart paper or an overhead transparency. 

Teachers can utilize class-created language-experience stories for many purposes, including highlighting sound-symbol relationships, grammatical structures, word formations, and vocabulary study. The stories can be incorporated into class and school newsletters or compiled into individual student booklets for rereading and illustration. 

Learning-Strategy Instruction. Learning strategies are techniques that facilitate the process of understanding, retaining, and applying knowledge. Making learning strategies explicit so that students can apply them successfully to both language and content learning is a powerful classroom technique. Through building a repertoire of learning strategies that they can use in reading, writing, and vocabulary development, English language learners take more responsibility for their own language learning and success in school. Examples of learning strategies include: using mnemonic devices to remember new words; using a highlighter to emphasize important information when reading; preparing cue cards to study for a test; and observing peers to learn more about Canadian culture and language. 

To help students become aware of their own learning processes and increase their repertoire and use of learning strategies, the teacher can prepare a questionnaire or survey to gather information on how students complete an assignment on time, learn and retain new words, or organize and learn from their notes. Class discussion then generates a larger class list of strategies, to which the teacher may add additional techniques and tips. The teacher can then round out the experience by asking students to write a reflection on growth and changes that have occurred in their learning process as a result of the application of new learning strategies.

Literature Circles. Also known as literature study groups or book clubs, literature circles provide an opportunity for a group of readers to get together to talk about a book in depth. The literature circle allows students to engage in natural and motivating talk about books while sharing ideas in a small-group setting. 

Teachers can structure a variety of activities for the literature circle: for example, a "parking lot" for thoughts and feelings about the book; questions to stimulate thinking about the text and guide discussion; and concluding activities such as book talks, dramatic presentations, or visual art that illustrates or interprets the text. 

Literature circles offer an excellent forum for English language learners to become familiar with ways of talking about literature as they share their responses to books and connect characters and themes in books to their own lives. 

Personal Dictionaries. This strategy allows individual English language learners to build vocabulary that is significant to them and relevant to their needs. Students can compile their personal dictionaries thematically or alphabetically, and can embellish them with aids such as bilingual translations, visuals, and even accompanying pronunciation tapes made with the aid of a first-language English speaker. A personal environmental print collection is another form of personal dictionary helpful to students at the beginning stages of English literacy development. 

Students can be encouraged to extend the personal dictionary into a vocabulary journal in which they jot down associations with words, common accompanying adjectives, and contexts in which they have heard or read the words. 

A personal dictionary task for more advanced learners might be to compile a personal thesaurus with lists of different and more specific words to express nuances of very general words: for example, move (crawl, jump, slither) or say (whisper, shout, mumble). 

Role Play. Role play allows students to simulate a variety of situations, using different registers of language for different purposes and audiences. Through role plays, English language learners can practise English as it is used in situations outside the classroom, such as in job interviews, meetings, and formal gatherings. The role-play strategy also allows students to take different perspectives on a situation, helping them to develop sensitivity and understanding by putting themselves in the shoes of others. 

Even students who are at the beginning stages of English language learning can participate in role-play activities – for example, by choosing a non-verbal role-play format, or by sticking closely to the script of a simple folk tale or story read in class. For students at more advanced levels of English proficiency, a "vocabulary role play", into which the student must creatively integrate certain vocabulary items, can create an enjoyable challenge. 

An important phase in any role-play activity is the follow-up. Debriefing after a role play allows students to analyse the role-play experience and the language used, and to make suggestions for other language choices in future situations. 

Sentence Frames. A sentence frame is an open-ended model of a particular sentence pattern into which students can insert various words to complete the sentence. Sentence frames help beginning English language learners to develop vocabulary as well as an awareness of English sentence structure. Teachers can introduce sentence frames to focus on various sentence structures such as questions: Where is the ___________ ?; or repeated actions: Every day at 9:00, I ___________ ; every day at 10:00 I ___________ . 

Students can compile their frame sentences into individual illustrated books; construct a class pattern book on a shared theme such as favourite school subjects or sports; or create class poems using sentence frames that can be read in rhythm (e.g., I like___________ , but I don't like ___________ ). 

Strategic Use of First Language. Strategic use of students' first languages in the classroom allows students the opportunity to build bridges between concepts they already know in their home language and the English words for those concepts. 

There are many ways to integrate the strategic use of students' first languages into classroom activities. The following are some examples: 
• A small group of speakers of the same language can brainstorm ideas and information on a new topic in their first language before the whole class brainstorms in English. 
• Students can write a first draft of a composition in their first language before moving on to a draft version in English. 
• Students can collect articles from multilingual media sources on a common topic before reading about the topic in English. 
• Students can write bilingual stories, folk tales, and autobiographies and then record them on tape in English and the first language. 
• Students can create multilingual websites with multilingual captions and articles. 
• A class can develop school or community information and orientation materials in a variety of community languages. 

Surveys and Interviews. English language learners can engage in meaningful oral communication with each other and with others outside the classroom through the completion of surveys and interviews. Students can collect information on many topics and issues: for example, how classmates spend their time during an average day; languages and countries of origin represented in the school; favourites from the world of music, movies, or television; health and wellness lifestyle choices; steps that classmates and friends are taking to decrease energy consumption; and cultural studies such as current popular Canadian names for babies or new slang terms popular with peers. 

Students need to prepare for, conduct, and follow up on surveys and interviews by formulating questions; using oral interaction to collect data; and organizing, displaying, and interpreting the results. 

Interviews and surveys provide opportunities for authentic interaction with a wide variety of speakers, as well as occasions for students to investigate behaviours and opinions in order to increase their cultural knowledge of Canadian society. 

Think-Aloud. In the think-aloud strategy, the teacher models out loud the strategies that good readers use when dealing with complicated texts, or demonstrates orally various strategies that writers use to think about and organize their writing. The think-aloud strategy gives students a chance to "get inside" the thought processes behind the use of reading and writing strategies. 

For example, the teacher reads aloud a brief passage to the class and describes in detail his or her own thinking process when an unknown word is encountered, including using information from context clues and background knowledge that could help in comprehending the new word. Or, when teaching writing, the teacher models aloud the strategies used in writing an employment-search cover letter while composing the letter on a chart, overhead transparency, or data-projector display. During this process, the teacher verbalizes for students the step-by-step composition of the letter, while deliberately describing the strategies, vocabulary, and content chosen in the process of writing the letter. 

Total Physical Response. Total Physical Response is based on recreating the process through which very young children acquire their first language. Young children learning their first language always listen and acquire language before they are ready to speak. Toddlers often develop comprehension through carrying out actual physical actions, and are not pressured to speak before they are ready. 

In the Total Physical Response technique, the teacher models a series of actions while repeating commands or instructions for carrying out the actions. The students carry out the actions while the teacher speaks and models the actions. Gradually, the teacher withdraws modelling of the actions, and the students respond physically to the English commands or instructions, slowly internalizing the English words and structures. Language learning is thus facilitated through body movement in a fun and relaxed atmosphere. 

There are many ways to implement the Total Physical Response strategy for beginning English language learners. Teachers can lead students through a series of actions such as the following: 
• pointing to or rearranging a series of objects 
• drawing lines, figures, or pictures 
• sequencing a series of pictures 
• carrying out a process such as completing a morning grooming routine, checking e-mail, opening a locker, or heating liquid in a Bunsen burner in chemistry class 

Total Physical Response sequences can form the basis for language-experience story writing. Another extension is in storytelling, in which students first listen to a story read and acted out by the teacher, after which groups act out the story on their own as the teacher retells it to the class. 

Whole-Class Response. This strategy allows the teacher to involve all students in the class in giving responses to review questions. It supplies information to the teacher about which students are having difficulty while allowing all English language learners to participate in a low-stress, linguistically adapted activity that is fun for everyone. 

Before beginning a question or review session, students create response cards with content-specific words, symbols, or pictures from the lesson. Information on the cards could consist of English vocabulary items, geographical names or features, scientific or mathematical terms, or even the words yes and no. Then, in response to the teacher's questions or prompts, students hold up the appropriate card or combination of cards. A similar whole-class response activity can be done using individual dry-erase boards or magnetic letter boards. 

Word Walls. Word walls are lists of words displayed in the classroom for vocabulary development and word study. They can be arranged alphabetically